Exam 3 Review Flashcards
What are three different measures of retention that psychologist use to study memory?
- Recall, retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness but learned at an earlier time.
Fill-in-the-blank question test tests recall. - Recognition, identifying items previously learned.
Multiple-choice tests recognition. - Relearning, learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later timer.
When studying for final exam, you relearn material more easily.
According to information-processing models of memory, what are the three fundamental memory processes?
- Encoding, the process of getting information into the memory system/brain.
- Storage, the process of retaining encoded information over time.
- Retrieval, the process of recalling previously encoded and stored information.
Lists the stages of the Atkinson-Shiffrin three stage model of memory.
Sensory memory, environmental information is registered with your senses.
Short-term/working memory, new information is transferred from sensory memory.
Long-term memory, information encoded in working memory is stored.
When referring to the second stage of memory, why is the newer term “working-memory” now considered a more appropriate term than “short-term” memory?
The term working-memory is considered more appropriate because it takes into account how active and busy the second stage of memory is.
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing + Examples
Automatic, encoding that occurs with no effort. An example would be riding a bike after after a long period of time.
Effortful, encoding that only happens when proper effort is made. An example would be remembering content studied in a class that is on an exam.
What is the difference between an explicit memory and an implicit memory?
An explicit memory consists of facts and experiences we can consciously know/memory with conscious recall.
Ex. Learning to read involves picking out letters and connecting them to certain sounds.
An implicit memory is incidental information such as space, time, and frequency that is unconsciously encoded.
Ex. Classically conditioned associations among stimuli.
What is sensory memory? Provide examples of two specific types of sensory memory.
Immediate, brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Iconic memory, brief sensory memory of what we have seen.
Ex. Picture-image memory lasting no longer than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic memory, brief sensory memory of things we have heard.
Ex. If attention is guided elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Describe the capacity and duration limitations of working-term memory and how they can be overcome. For each limitation, discuss one way of overcoming it.
The capacity of working-term memory is limited. May be overcome by chunking - grouping items together.
Only lasts approximately 20-30 seconds. May be overcome by rehearsal/repetition.
We can remember an average of 7 items.
What are mnemonics? Give an example of one.
Mnemonics, memory aids/techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Ex. creating acronyms from first letters of what is to be remembered items - to chunk information to aid memory for unfamiliar material.
What is the spacing effect? What is the testing effect? What two recommendations do these effects suggest to study more effectively for this class?
Spacing effect, information is retained better when encoding is distributed over time.
Testing effect, an effective way to distribute practice and enhance memory is by repeated self-testing and consciously retrieving.
Distributed practice and self testing/retrieval practice.
Explain the concept of depth of processing.
Be sure to contrast deep processing and shallow processing.
How is this concept illustrated in the results of Craik and Tulving (1975) study described in the text?
Depth of processing affects our long-term memory retention and we process verbal information at different levels.
Shallow processing encodes on a basic or elementary level based on structure or appearance of words.
Deep processing encodes based on the meaning of words. The deeper the meaning, the better our retention.
Words were flashed at viewers and then they were asked questions that would draw out different levels of processing. Deeper processing triggered by third question “Would this word fit in this sentence? The girl put the _____ (doll) on the table.” displayed much better memory than shallow processing.
What are two brain structure associated with the formation of explicit memories?
Frontal lobes, when thinking of a past experience, many brain regions send input to prefrontal cortex for working memory processing.
Ex. Recalling a password and holding onto that information activated left frontal lobe.
Hippocampus, enables the construction of detailed memories and helps process explicit memories of facts and events for storage.
What are two brain structures associated with the formation of implicit memories?
Cerebellum, forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning.
Basal Ganglia, involved in motor movement, facilitates formation of procedural memories for skills.
What are flashbulb memories and what does research suggest about their accuracy?
Vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Accuracy may not be as good as we think since errors can occur as we rehearse and discuss these memories.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) + what does it provide the neural basis for?
LTP is an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation that provides a neural basis for learning and memory.
Differentiate between context-dependent memory and state-dependent memory.
Context-dependent memory, environment of encoding resembles environment of retrieval. Ex. Scuba diver study.
State-dependent memory, recall is improved if internal state resembles internal state during retrieval.
Ex. Drunk people recall what they learn slightly better in the same state.
What is mood congruent recall?
Better recall for events that match our current mood.
Ex. When teens were down, their parents seemed cruel and when their mood was lifted, their parents were angels.
What is the serial position effect?
Suggests why we have large holes in our memory of the list of recent events.
What is the primacy effect effect? What stage of memory is most related to it?
Recall is better for items at the start of a list. Working memory.
What is the recency effect? What stage of memory is most related to it?
Better recall for items at the end of lists. Working memory.
Describe the two different types of amnesia.
Anterograde Amnesia, inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia, inability to recall old memories.
____________ memory consists of facts and general knowledge while ___________ memory is comprised of personally experienced events. Both types of memories are examples of the broader __________ memory, which involves memory with conscious recall.
Semantic; Episodic; Explicit
Briefly explain how encoding failure, storage decay, and retrieval failure can contribute to forgetting.
Encoding failure, what we fail to encode, we will never remember.
Storage decay, forgetting is initially rapid and then levels off with time.
Retrieval failure, sometimes stored information cannot be accessed, leads to forgetting. Can be due to interference or motivated forgetting.
What is the difference between retroactive interference and proactive interference?
Retroactive (backward-acting) interference, occurs when new learning disrupts recall of old information.
Proactive interference (forward-acting) interference, occurs when prior learning disrupts recall of new information.
