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Exam 2 Review Flashcards

1
Q

Sensation

A

Process of CONVERTING PHYSICAL STIMULI (light, sound, heat, pressure) into the LANGUAGE OF THE BRAIN (action potential and neurotransmitter release).

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2
Q

Perception

A

A process which ORGANIZES and INTERPRETS SENSORY INFORMATION.

Enables us to RECOGNIZE important objects and events.

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3
Q

Bottom-Up Processing (Sensation)

A

Starts at SENSORY RECEPTORS and WORKS UP to the BRAIN’S INTEGRATION of sensory information.

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4
Q

Top-Down Processing (Perception)

A

Information processing that is guided by HIGHER LEVEL MENTAL PROCESSES and we develop perceptions on experience.

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5
Q

Absolute Threshold

A

The MINIMUM stimulus energy needed to detect a CERTAIN stimulus 50% of the time.

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6
Q

How do psychologists determine absolute threshold for a sense such as hearing or sight?

A

By sending varying levels of tone into each of a subject’s ear and record whether they can hear each tone - absolute threshold would be half the time you detect the sound and half the time you do not.

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7
Q

Subliminal Stimulus

A

Stimuli that CANNOT be DETECTED CONSCIOUSLY 50% of the time BELOW absolute threshold.

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8
Q

Difference Threshold

A

The SMALLEST possible DIFFERENCE between TWO (2) stimuli that can be detected half (50%) of the time.

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9
Q

How is difference threshold related to Weber’s Law?

A

The principle states that TWO stimuli must DIFFER by a CONSTANT MINIMUM % instead of a CONSTANT AMOUNT. Exact % varies by stimulus.

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10
Q

Sensory Adaptation

A

When one is exposed to an UNCHANGING STIMULUS, they become less aware of its presence because our nerve cells fire LESS often.

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11
Q

Two physical properties of waves and what are two ways waves can vary?

A
  1. Wavelength, the distance from one wave peak to the next.
    Determines the color we experience (hue, short to long).
  2. Intensity, the amount of energy that a wave contains and is measured by a light wave’s amplitude or height (brightness, great or small).
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12
Q

What do we experience visually when wavelength and intensity change in the light we are seeing?

A

Wavelength, a SHORT wavelength means HIGH frequency which displays BLUISH colors.
LONG wavelength means LOW frequency which displays REDDISH colors.

Intensity, GREAT amplitude displays BRIGHT COLORS. SMALL amplitudes display DULL colors.

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13
Q

What are the two receptor cells/sensory receptors located in the eye and what visual stimuli is each sensitive to?

A
  1. Rods, retinal receptors that detect BLACK, WHITE, and GRAY - sensitive to movement and necessary for PERIPHERAL VISION when cones do not respond.
  2. Cones, retinal receptors that function in DAYLIGHT or well-lit conditions - detects FINE DETAIL and COLOR sensations.
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14
Q

Fovea, location of fovea on the retina, and associated photoreceptors.

A

The fovea is where the eye’s cones cluster and is the central (center) focal point in the retina. Photoreceptors are cones.

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15
Q

Iris

A

A colored muscle that DILATES or CONSTRICTS in response to LIGHT INTENSITY.

Surrounds and controls the pupil.

Responds to cognitive and emotional states.

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16
Q

Pupil

A

A small, ADJUSTABLE OPENING in which light can enter the eye.

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17
Q

Lens

A

Focuses LIGHT RAYS into an IMAGE on the RETINA.

If lens focuses image on a point in front of the retina, one can see near objects but not distant (myopia).

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18
Q

Retina

A

A multilayered tissue on the eyeball’s sensitive inner surface.

Contains receptor RODS and CONES as well as layers of NEURONS that initiate the process of visual information.

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19
Q

Fovea

A

The point of CENTRAL FOCUS located in the center of the RETINA.

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20
Q

How does sensation occur in the retina? (Hint: 4 Steps)

A

Light enters the eye which triggers a chemical reaction in the rods and cones at the back of the retina.

The chemical reaction response by activating bipolar cells.

Bipolar cells activate ganglion cells that have combined axons that form the optic nerve.

Optic nerve send the information to the brain.

OR

Light > Photoreceptors > Bipolar Cells > Ganglion Cells > Optic Nerve > Brain

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21
Q

Blind Spot

A

The blind spot is on the nose side of each retina which means that objects that are to the right fall into the right eye’s blind spot, same with the left eye. It is a point where the optic nerve leaves the eye and is experienced because there are NO RECEPTOR CELLS located there.

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22
Q

Feature Detectors

A

NERVE CELLS in the visual cortex of occipital lobe that respond to specific visual features of a scene such as edges, lines, angles, and movements.

Receives information from individual ganglion cells in the retina.

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23
Q

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

A

The eye must have 3 corresponding types of color receptors (RGB). By measuring the response of different cones to different color stimuli, the retina’s 3 types of color receptors are sensitive to wavelengths of red, green, and blue. Other colors are seen when light stimulates combinations of these cones.

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24
Q

The __________________ theory of color vision is more adequately able to explain the occurrence of afterimages.

A

Opponent-Process

Blue-Yellow
Red-Green
Black-White

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25
Figure-ground relationship in the context of understanding visual perception.
The organization of visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground). Ex. “First we see the vase, then the faces, but we always organize stimulus into a figure seen against the ground.”
26
3 Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Grouping
1. Proximity, GROUPING nearby figures TOGETHER. 2. Continuity, perceive smooth, CONTINUOUS PATTERNS rather than DISCONTINUOUS. 3. Closure, FILL in GAPS to create a complete, WHOLE OBJECT.
27
6 Monocular Cues of Depth Perception
1. Relative Height, perceive objects higher in field of vision as farther away. 2. Relative Size, assuming 2 objects are similar in size most people perceive the one that casts smaller retinal image as farther away. 3. Relative Motion, as we move, objects that appear to move are actually stable. 4. Light and Shadow, shading produces sense of depth consistent with assumption that light comes from above. 5. Linear Perspective, parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. Sharper angle of convergence = greater perceived distance. 6. Interposition, if one object partially blocks view of another, we perceive it as closer.
28
2 Binocular Cues of Depth Perception
1. Convergence, inward angle of eyes focusing on a near object. 2. Retinal Disparity, brain computes distance. The greater the difference between two images, the closer the object.
29
What do we hear when wavelength and intensity change in the sounds we are hearing?
The amplitude of sound waves determine their perceived loudness. The length or frequency determines the pitch that we experience. Long waves have low frequency and low pitch. Short waves have high frequency and high pitch.
30
In the cochlea, sound waves cause the _________ ____________ to vibrate, which in turn causes hair cells embedded in this membrane to move back and forth. The movement of these cells cause nerve impulses to be sent to the hearing center of the brain.
Basilar Membrane
31
Place Theory (high-pitched sounds) and how we experience the pitch of sound.
Place theory suggests that we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the basilar membrane. The brain determines sound pitch by reorganizing specific places that is generating the neural signal.
32
Frequency Theory and how we experience the pitch of sound.
Suggests that the brain reads pitch by monitoring the frequency of neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve. Basilar membrane vibrates with incoming sound wave which triggers neural impulses to the brain at the same rate. Volley principle explains that neural cells alternate firing to achieve combined frequency.
33
Sound Shadow
Head creates a barrier that reduces sound’s intensity on side opposite to sound.
34
Dissociation Theory
Suggests that HYPNOSIS is DUAL-PROCESSING state of dissociation and aims to explain why hypnotized people carry out POSTHYPNOTIC suggestions. People hypnotized for pain relief show brain activity in areas that receive sensory information, not areas that process pain-related information.
35
Social Influence Theory
Suggest that HYPNOSIS is a BYPRODUCT of normal SOCIAL and MENTAL processes. Ex. When actors get caught up in a role and begin to feel and behave in ways for good hypnotic subjects.
36
Four Tactile/Touch Sensations
Pressure Warmth Cold Pain
37
Your personal sense of the movement and position of your various body parts is known as ___________. A companion _________ sense helps create this body awareness by tracking movements of your head.
Kinesthesia; Vestibular
38
Embodied Cognition + One Example
The influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements. Ex. The judgement of others may mimic body sensations such as sitting at a wobbly desk and chair makes others’ relationships or own romantic relation seem less stable.
39
Dual-Processing
Consists of two separate tracks which are: 1. Conscious level, sequential processing which is best for solving new problems that require attention. 2. Unconscious level, parallel processing which is routine business. Both work together to affect our perception, memory, attitudes, and other cognitions.
40
Inattentional Blindness + One Research Example
Failing to see visible objects when attention is guided elsewhere. Ex. 24 radiologists we’re looking for cancer modules in lung scans and 20 of them missed a gorilla imbedded in the upper right of the image.
41
Change Blindness + One Research Example
Failing to notice changes in the environment and is a form of inattentional blindness. Ex. Participants in a laboratory failed to notice a big Coke bottle had disappeared, a railing had risen, clothing changed color, and construction workers changed places due to brief visual interruption.
42
Circadian Rhythms + Two Examples
Internal biological 24-hour cycle of day and night that our bodies roughly synchronize to. The body temperature cycle, which body temperature rises as morning nears, peaks during the day, then dips for a time in early afternoon, and drops in evening. Sleep/wake cycle, as daylight fades the SCN releases melatonin to help prepare for sleep.
43
Main brain structure that regulates circadian rhythms.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus.
44
Explain how jet lag from flying 3 time zones east (Seattle to New York) is related to circadian rhythm disruptions.
When you fly through different time zones, your biological clock will be different from local time. From Seattle to New York, you lose 3 hours of sleep so waking up at 7 AM on the East Coast makes you feel the same way you might at 4 AM on West Coast.
45
Explain how sleep problems from day shift to graveyard shift are related to circadian rhythm disruptions.
Instead of 24-hour day, a 25-hour day is adopted by staying up too late to get 8 hours sleep. Graveyard shift workers may experience desynchronization in which they become more likely to develop fatigue, stomach problems, and heart disease.
46
2 Brain Wave Patterns (Awake)
1. Alpha waves, slow brain waves of a relaxed and awake state. 2. Beta waves, brain waves of an alert, waking state.
47
NREM-1 (N1)
Experience images resembling hallucinations such as a sensation of falling or floating. Hypnagogic sensations may be incorporated in memory.
48
NREM-2 (N2)
Deep relaxation, lasts 20 minutes. Periodic sleep spindles (bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity that aid memory processing), clearly asleep.
49
NREM-3 (N3)
Delta waves are found. Lasts 30 minutes. The brain emits large, slow delta waves.
50
REM (R)
Occurs about an hour after you first fall asleep, returning through N2 you enter REM sleep. For about 10 minutes, brain waves become rapid and saw/toothed. Heart rate rises, breathing becomes irregular and your eyes drift around in momentary bursts every half minute.
51
4 Sleep Theories
1. Sleep Protects 2. Sleep Helps Us Recuperate 3. Sleep Helps Us Restore and Rebuild Fading Memories of Day’s Experiences 4. Sleep Supports Growth (5. ) Sleep Feeds Creative Thinking
52
Insomnia
Ongoing difficulty falling or staying asleep. Symptoms are: chronic fatigue, increased risk of depression, reliance on sleeping pills and alcohol which reduce REM sleep.
53
Narcolepsy
Sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness. | Symptom: risk falling asleep at a dangerous moment.
54
Sleep Apnea
Stopping breathing repeatedly while sleeping. | Symptoms are: fatigue, depression (slow wave deprivation), and obesity.
55
Sleep Talking
Doing normal waking activities while asleep, can occur at any stage of sleep. Symptoms are: returning to bed by one’s self or with the help of a family member and rarely remembering their trip the next morning.
56
Sleep Walking
Happens in N3 sleep, same symptoms as sleep talking (few serious concerns).
57
Night Terror + vs. Nightmare
Appearing terrified, talking nonsense, sitting up, or walking around during N3 sleep. More common in children. Nightmares are more reported after suffering trauma.
58
According to Freud, why do we dream?
Dream imagery is a symbolic (remembered storyline of a dream) expression of unacceptable urges, wishes, and dreams (underlying meaning).
59
Activation Synthesis Theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories which our sleeping brain weaves into stories.
60
Information Processing
Dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidates our memories. Does not explain why we sometimes dream about unexperienced things and events.
61
Physiological Function
The regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. Does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams.
62
Cognitive Development
Dream content reflects dreamers’ level of cognitive development. Dreams stimulate our lives including worst case scenarios. Does not propose adaptive function of dreams.
63
REM Rebound
Tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
64
Tolerance
Needing more substance to feel desired effect, brain chemistry tries to adapt to offset the drug effect (neuroadaptation).
65
Withdrawal
Experienced when attempting to end use such as strong addictive cravings and significant discomfort.
66
Physical Dependence
When an individual needs to take the drug to feel “normal”, can be presented through withdrawal symptoms. A result of long-term use of a certain drug.
67
Psychological Dependence
When a drug becomes central to an individual’s thoughts, emotions, and activities due to lacking sense of purpose or experiencing significant stress.
68
3 Major Categories of Psychoactive Drugs and their Effects
1. Depressants, calms neural activity, disrupts memory, and slow body functions. Expectancy effects. Ex. Alcohol, barbiturates, opiates. 2. Stimulants, make people feel alert by exciting neural activity and speeding up body functions. Heart and breathing rate increases, rise of blood sugar levels, drop in appetite. Ex. Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines. 3. Hallucinogens, distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. Ex. LSD, MDMA, and Marijuana
69
``` Classify: Alcohol Heroin Caffeine Methamphetamine Cocaine Nicotine Marijuana ```
``` Depressant Depressant Stimulant Stimulant Stimulant Stimulant Hallucinogen ```
70
Synesthesia
Perceptual experience of one sense that is evoked by another sense.
71
Learning
The process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors.
72
Associative Learning
Learn certain events occur together.
73
Classical Conditioning
Learn to associate two or more stimuli. Respondent behavior, automatically responding to stimuli we do not control.
74
Operant Conditioning
Learn to associate a response and its consequence and produces operant behaviors.
75
Cognitive Learning
Acquiring mental information that guides our behavior.
76
How do you create a classically conditioned salivation response in a dog?
Sound a tone (NS) to pair the tone and food (US) to the dog so the dog salivates (UR) to the tone alone. Tone (previous NS) becomes a *CS*, which now produces salivation (CR).
77
Hint: Conditioned = Learned; Unconditioned = Unlearned 1. NS 2. US 3. UR 4. CS 5. CR
1. Neutral stimulus, elicits no response before conditioning. 2. Unconditioned stimulus, something that naturally and automatically triggers unlearned response. 3. Unlearned response, event that occurs naturally in response to come stimulus. 4. Conditioned stimulus, neutral stimulus that after association with unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response. 5. Conditioned response, learned response to initial neutral but now conditioned stimulus.
78
When the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, _________ occurs.
Extinction
79
Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus and can be adaptive. ex. Toddlers who learn to fear moving cars also fear moving trucks and motorcycles.
80
Discrimination
Ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. ex. Facing a guard dog vs. guard dog - your heart may race with guard dog but not with guide dog.
81
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more like and vice versa.
82
What is learned in the process of operant conditioning?
To learn the association of a response/ behavior and its consequence.
83
Shaping + General Type of Learning
Reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer to desired behavior. Operant conditioning procedure.
84
Negative Reinforcement vs. Positive Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Negative reinforcement strengthens a response by reducing or removing something negative. Positive reinforcement strengthens response by presenting pleasurable stimulus immediately after a response. Punishment is an event (aversive) that is removed with negative reinforcement to decrease behavior it follows.
85
2 Partial Reinforcement Schedules that keep track of first correct response shown by animal or human after a certain amount of time has passed.
1. Fixed-Ratio, reinforces behavior after a set number of responses. ex. Buy 10 coffees, get 1 free. 2. Variable-Ratio, provides reinforcers after unpredictable number of responses. ex. Slot-machine players.
86
2 Partial Reinforcement Schedules that keep track of the first correct response shown by animal or human after a certain amount of time has passed.
1. Fixed-Interval, reinforce first response after a fixed time period. ex. Pigeons peck keys more rapidly as time for reinforcement draws closer. 2. Variable-Interval, reinforce first response after varying time intervals. ex. Food pellet rewarded pigeons for persistence in pecking a key.
87
Which type of partial schedule of reinforcement is more resistant to extinction?
A variable schedule because reinforcement is unpredictable rather than predictable.
88
3 Disadvantages of Punishment
1. Physical punishment does not replace unwanted behavior. 2. Punishment can teach fear. 3. Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems.
89
How do cognitive maps and latent learning challenge the traditional behaviorist view of learning?
Cognitive maps are a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. Latent learning becomes apparent only when an incentive was present to demonstrate it.
90
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment, distinction between learning and performance.
UNFINISHED

Psychology (4 decks)

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