Exam 3 - Memory Flashcards
Encoding
Process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
(memories are constructed, not recorded)
Storage
Process of maintaining information in memory over time
Retrieval
Process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
Semantic Encoding
the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory
Semantic judgement?
Judgement where you have to THINK of the meaning of words
Area of the brain active during semantic encoding
The Lower left part of the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe (See pg. 221)
Visual imagery encoding
the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
(the “imagine walking through the house to remember things” method, or Method of loci)
Reasons for how semantic encoding work?
Because you need to think about the meaning, it is better processed and more easily remembered than judging case, for example
Reasons for how visual imagery encoding work?
2 reasons:
1) You are making a visual image using incoming information and relating it to knowledge that you already have. By assosiation, your ability to remember things improves
2) You are using more than one mental placeholder to remember the item - a visual and verbal placeholder -> therefore, more ways to remember.
What part of the brain is active when you are doing visual imagery encoding?
Visual processing regions in the occipital lobe. (pg. 221)
Organizational encoding
The process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items
ex. grouping “peach, apple, cherry” into a group “fruits” from a list, such as: peach cow lion chair table couch apple cheery desk lion horse, or a server grouping together drinks, hot foods, deserts, etc.
What part of the brain is active when you are doing organizational encoding?
Upper surface of the left frontal lobe (pg. 221)
Survival Encoding
Memory tasks that are related to task related to survival (ex. what would you bring on to a deserted island?) is easier to encode and recall versus other non-survival-encoding tasks
What are the advantages of survival encoding?
- It draws on the other three encoding types (semantic, visual imagery, and organizational encoding).
- It encourages thinking about end goals in detail, resulting in extensive planning. Extensive planning in turn benefits memory. Planning can benefit memory encoding even when NOT in survival situations.
Three memory types?
Sensory, short-term, long-term
Sensory memory?
A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less
2 examples of sensory memory? (hint: think types of senses)
Iconic memory and Echoic memory
visual info and auditory info
Iconic memory
Fast-decaying store of visual information, about 1 second before decay
Echoic memory
fast-decaying store of auditory information, retained abut 5 seconds before decay
How does one convert sensory memory into short-term memory?
Attention; by paying attention to the sensory information, you are able to convert what you transduce into something you retain (sensory -> short term memory)
Short-term memory
A type of memory storage that holds non sensory information for more than a few seconds, but less than a minute.
Information storage time in short-term memory?
About 15-20 seconds.
Rehersal
The process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it.
This works by “resetting” the short-term memory “counter”
Serial position effect
The observation that the first few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the terms in the middle.
Rehersal can play a role in this
The 2 subsets of serial position effect?
Primacy effect & Recency effect
Primacy effect
Enhanced recall of the FIRST few items in a series
Why does the primacy effect occur?
It is because the items in the beginning are more likely to receive more rehearsals than subsequent items in the middle. Thus,it is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory.
Recency effect
Enhanced recall of the LAST few items in a series
Why does recency effect occur?
It can result from rehearsing items that are still in short-term storage (i.e. the most recent is more likely to be rehearsed)
Limitations of short-term memory?
Storage time (15-20 seconds) & Storage capacity (about 7 items or 7 chunks, even when the seven words contain more than 7 letters)
Chunking
Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or “chunks” that are more easily held in short-term memory
used to bypass capacity limitation
Working memory
A type of short-term storage that actively maintains information
Parts of the Working memory and their functions?
Visual-spatial sketchpad (stores visual info) Phonological loop (stores verbal information) Episodic buffer (integrates visual and verbal info) Central executive (controls all 3)
Refer to figure 6.8
Long-term memory
a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years
Limits on capacity on long-term memory?
No known limit
What region is critical for long-term storage?
Hippocampus
Anterograde amnesia
The inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery
How is the hippocampus involved in long term memory?
Current theory is that it is like a form of “index”, retrieving the different aspects that comprise a single memory during recall (ex. sights, sounds, smell, emotional content)
Consolidation
The process by which memories become stable in the brain
How is the hippocampus related to consolidation?
The hippocampus is involved in the transfer and “permanancy” of the brain’s memories over time. Damage to the hippocampus thus will affect consolidation and thus the consolidation of long-term memories.
Reconsolidation
The process where memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again.
i.e. the act of recall can cause memories to change, thus requiring a repeated “fixing” of the memory
How can reconsolidation help?
Reconsolidation may be potentially used as a way to make traumatic memories not as traumatic.
What is meant by “cells that fire together wire together?”
Sending a signal between the synapse between neurons strengthens the connections between them
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
A process whereby repeated communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier
(i.e. the more they fire, the stronger they get)
Retrieval cue
External information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind
Ex. when trying to remember a list of objects, such as different furnitures, having a retrieval cue such as “soft” or something else related to those memories will help the retrieval of memory
Encoding Specificity principle
The idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded -
How does the encoding specificity principle apply?
A retrieval cue, such as the environment (ex. classroom) in which the memory has formed, can help one retrieve the memory
State-dependent retrieval
The process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same (internal) state during encoding or retrieval
ex. If you were sad at the time of memory formation, being sad will help you increase the retrieval of that sad memory (same when happy, angry, etc.) In other words, personal state itself is a retrieval cue
Transfer-appropriate processing
The process whereby memory is more likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match.
Se.. pg. 234 for example.
Consequences of retrieval?
Retrieval can improve, impair, or change subsequent memory
Retrieval-induced forgetting
Process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items.
Theory behind retrieval-induced forgetting?
Idea is that in order to retrieve a particular result, you have to suppress competitors. That suppression can reduce the ability to retrieve competitors at a latter time; even if you are not successful in retrieving the target memory.
(i.e. stuff that you were not tested on will be easier to forget that those that were tested)
How can retrieval change subsequent memory?
When retrieving a memory, they may incorporate other information that was not originally part of that memory (see pg. 236)
What area of the brain shows increased activity when attempting (but failing) to recall information?
The left frontal lobe
What area of the brain shows increased activity when successfully recalling information?
The hippocampus, sensory areas related to memory
Successful retrieval may cause activation in what areas of the brain (apart from the hippocampus)
Activation of the sensory areas related to the sensory features of an experience may be activated (ex. auditory cortex activation in response to remembering a song)
Two types of long-term memories?
explicit memory and implicit memory
Explicit memory
The act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences (automatic track). Has 2 types, semantic and episodic
Implicit memory
Memory of past experiences that influences later behaviour and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection. (recollection of information we don’t remember consciously/deliberately; effort-full track)
Procedural memory
A type of implicit memory that refers to the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things (motor skills and habits, such as riding a bike)
What does procedural memory imply about brain activation during memory formation?
It implies that hippocampal structures are not necessarily needed for implicit memory, compared to explicit memory where it is needed.
Activity in areas associated in a primed task (ex. occipital lobe, when viewing pictures) will be LESS than that of the same activity when not primed (see .page 240)
Priming
An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of recent exposure to the stimulus - seeing something associated to a concept will help recall of the concept
Fill-in-the-blanks is a form of priming and implicit memory (see pg. 240)
2 subsets of priming?
Perceptual priming & sensory priming
Perceptual priming
Implicit memory for sensory features of an item (visual characteristics, so what you percieve)
Conceptrual priming
Implict memory for the meaning of a word or how you would use an object.
What areas of the brain are associated with perceptual priming?
Back of the brain (ex. visual cortex), as well as the right cerebral hemisphere
What areas of the brain are associated with conceptual priming?
Frontal lobes, and the left cerebral hemisphere
Types of explicit memory?
Semantic memory and episodic memory
Types of implicit memory?
Procedural memory, priming (perceptual and conceptual), space, time and frequency memory
Semantic memory
Network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
Ex. what is important about Nov. 11?
Episodic memory
The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.
Ex. your first memory
Is the hippocampus necessary for acquiring new semantic memories?
NO, it is not (see. pg. 242 for example)
Is the hippocampus necessary for acquiring new episodic memories?
Yes
How can episodic memory contribute to envisioning the future?
Episodic memory allows us to recombine elements of past experience in new ways so we can mentally “try out” different versions of future events
Divergent creative thinking
Generating creative ideas by combining different types of information in new ways
Using episodic memory to imagine the future is an example of this
Collaborative inhibition
The same number of individuals working together recall fewer items than they would on their own
Possible explanation for collaborative inhibition?
Retrieval strategy use by an individual in a group may be incomparable with other individuals within the group, resulting in inteference for everyone’s own recall.
Benefits of collaborative recall?
Leads to exposure to items recalled by others that may not be recalled themselves - lead to improved memory later
Allows for correction between each other, reducing memory errors
Transience
forgetting what occurs with the passage of time
Retroactive interference
Situations in which information learned later impairs memory for information acquired EARLIER
Proactive interference
Situations in which information learned earlier impairs memory for information acquired LATER
Absentmindedness
Lapse in attention that results in memory failure
What causes absentmindedness, and why?
Having a lack of attention is one reason. This is because without proper attention, material is not as likely to be encoded properly.
What happens in the brain when we have a divided attention?
The lower left frontal lobe has less activity (i.e. the area used for semantic encoding isn’t used/functioning as much as it usually does)
Lower activity in the hippocampus (so less encoding)
Prospective memory
Remembering to do something in the future
How to ensure prospective memory works?
Having a cue when near the time of the deferred action helps prevent the absentmindedness (and forgetting to do it)
blocking
Failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it.
Memory misattribution
Assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source.
Source memory
Recall of when, where, and how information was acquired
What area of the brain is important for proper memory attribution? (i.e. important in preventing source memory errors)
The frontal lobe - because it is used in the retrieval process for memory
False recognition
A feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before (i.e. an error in source memory, you think you’ve seen it before, but you haven’t)
déja vécu
A memory misattribution in why one feels strongly but mistakenly believe that they have already lived through an experience and remember the details of what happened.
A disruption in what areas of the brain can cause déja vécu?
Temporal lobe (normally generates subjective feeling of remembering) Frontal lobe (involved in source memory)
False recognition prevention?
When given a choice between something you actually are familiar with, compared to something you are not familiar with, you will pick the correct one.
Brain activation during false recognition?
Similar activation in true and false recognition in the hippocampus
Suggestibility
The tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections.
Factors that can enhance/influence suggestibility?
The fact that we do not store all the details of our experiences (only the general bits). So like false memory, we are vulnerable to accepting suggestions of what happened.
Visual imagery of imagining the event can also create false memories
Social pressure can enhance suggestibility
Bias
The distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences.
Consistency bias
bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present
Change bias
The tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe now and what we felt or believed in the past
Egocentric bias
A special case of change bias, where one tends to exaggerate the change between present and past to make ourselves look good in retrospect.
Persistence
Intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
What is easier to remember, emotional or non-emotional experiences?
Emotional experiences
Flashbulb memories
Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
What is likely to be a reason for persistence?
The emotional experiences related to the event likely enhances experiences and gives them meaning (i.e. semantic encoding)
What part of the brain is a key player in remembering emotional events?
The amygdala - heightened amygdala activity during an event helps later recall of that event
What happens when the amygdala is impaired or damaged (in regards to remembering emotional events)?
If the amygdala is damaged or interfered with, memory of emotional events are no better than memories of non-emotional events
Are the seven “sins” of memory all bad?
No; they are a “cost” we pay for the benefits of memory
Paradox of memory
The paradox where memories are surprisingly good in some situations, but surprisingly poor in others.
Memory
Learning that persists over time, it is information that has been ACQUIRED and STORED and can be RETRIEVED.
What are the two subsets of the encoding specificity principle?
Internal (state-dependent) or external (context-dependent)
Context-dependent encoding
When the environment of the encoding (external context) matches the retrieval context
i.e. when you are in the same physical environment where you encoded the memory, you are more likely to successfully recall the memory as the location you were in when you encoded the memory is itself a cue
Levels of processing for words?
Shallow processing - structural encoding; focus on physical structure
Intermediate processing - phonemic encoding (focusing on the sound of the sentence)
Deep processing - semantic encoding (focusing on the meaning of the words)
Self-referential encoding
A type of semantic encoding when you focus on the meaning to one’s self, i.e. your own personal memory/meaning
Method of loci
A visual encoding strategy in which you convert what you want to remember into a visual image then store it in a familiar location - then take a mental “walk” through the location to recall what you remember by “looking” at the things you are remembering
Mnemonic
A learning aid that improves encoding and enhances recall
Types of Mnemonics?
Method of Loci
Pegword method
Acronyms
Pegword Method
Having words that are associated with numbers (ex. one gun, two shoe, etc.). Then, to remember items, you “peg” it to that list, so for example, I need to remember to buy eggs and milk, you could imagine the gun (#1 on the list) shooting eggs, and the shoe (#2 on the list) filled with milk
Acronym
Forming a word from the initial components of a set of words to help remember them easier; ex. ROYGBIV, UBC, NATO, Every Good Boy Does Fine
What does it mean to have dual-track memory?
We have two “tracks” of memory; one type of memory is automatic (i.e. don’t need to recall how to do, like driving) while others need effort (like remembering how to do chemical reactions)
Where are implicit memories processed?
in the cerebellum and basal ganglia
Where are explicit memories processed?
In the hippocampus and frontal lobes
Clive Wearing
- What happened to him?
- What happened to his memory?
- What does that tel us?
Damaged hippocampus
Poor STM, loss episodic memory formation as well as existing episodic memory
Preserved implicit and semantic memory
What does the hippocampus and frontal lobes do in explicit memory formation?
They register and temporarily hold elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage
Areas of the brain involved in explicit memory?
Parietal, frontal, and temporal cortexes (temporal lobe include hippocampus)
von Restorff effect
The tendency to best recall odd or distinctive items in a list
What is the flow of information through the memory system?
See diagram slide 2 lecture 6
3 types of Forgetting
Storage decay
Encoding failure
Retrieval Failure
3 types of Storage decay
1) In sensory system - information that wasn’t attend to is lost
2) In STM - Unreheasrsed info is lost
3) In LTM - Forgetting over time
Encoding failure
Forgetting that occurs because information failed to encode into LTM
Retrieval failure
Failed retrieval (ex. blocking)
Eric Kandel
Guy who won Nobel price for research w/ sea slugs
Spacing effect
Effect where learning is more effective if spread out over time
