Exam 1 - Ch. 2 Flashcards
Demand characteristics
aspects of an observational setting that cause
people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects
A problem w/ Descriptive studies
E.g. Participant tries to be helpful and gives the answer that they think the experimenter wants
Observer bias
Systematic errors in observations that occur because of
an observer’s expectations
-“Expectation influences reality”
double-blind observation
The experimental
condition is hidden from both the observer
and the person being observed
Variable
Something that can vary
Correlational studies
examine how variables are related
-cannot establish casual relationship
described by correlational coefficient “r”
Correlation issues
- They do not generalize
- correlation does NOT mean causation (again no strength in creating casual relationships)
Directionality problem
There’s an ambiguity in the direction of causality
in a correlational relationship.
(i.e. does variable A cause B, or does variable B cause A)
Empiricism
Belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation
Scientific method
a procedure for finding facts by using empirical
evidence
Theory
hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
What makes a good theory?
Falsifiable
Parsimonious (AKA simple)
Supported with Data
Occam’s razor
as long as a simple theory describes the data, there is
little need to develop more complex theories
Hypothesis
a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on
Replication
Doing something again
Why is research needed?
Some observations are not possible
• (e.g. germs are too small but they are there)
- Observations are not always reliable or we see things incorrectly
- (e.g. horse galloping)
- Some observations are false
- (e.g. earth appears to be flat)
• People disagree on their observations
Problems specific to human research
Complexity : people are complicated
- Variability : people have lots of variations
- Reactivity : People act differently when the know that they are being observed (Hawthorne effect)
Hawthorn effect
presence of an observer may alter the behaviour being
observed
Descriptive research
involves observing and objectively describing
behaviour
- Describes a phenomenon, may generate predictions
- Researcher does not have control, and cannot provide an explanation for the phenomenon.
- Limited ability to describe behaviour and predict future behaviour
Examples of Descriptive research
A) Case study : an examination of a single unusual person or organization
-not generalizable
B) Naturalistic observation: systematic coding of overt behaviour of people in their natural environment
-E.g. hungry shoppers buy more impulse items (Gilbert et al. 2002)
C) Self-reports and interviews : directly asks people about themselves, thoughts, actions and feelings
ex. Surveys, interviews
Third variable problem
Instead of variable A producing variable B, it is
possible that a third variable, C, is responsible for both A and B
Spurious correlation
A correlational relationship where a connection between two variables that appears causal but is not.
-Due to the 3rd variable problem
Controls for 3rd variable issue
Matched sample technique : participants in two groups are identical in terms of a third variable.
Matched pairs technique : each participant is identical to one other participant in terms of a third variable.
*You still can only control one
So why use correlation?
- Correlation studies are used for ethical reasons
- Unethical to get people to start smoking or drive while testing
- Correlation allows predictions to be generated
Experiment
researcher manipulates (changes) one variable to measure the effect on the second variable Needed to establish casual effects
Independent variable
the variable that gets manipulated
Dependent variable
the variable that gets measured
Operational definition
qualify (describe) and quantify (measure)
variables so the variables can be understood objectively
Instrument
measures the dependent variable
What makes a good measurement?
Validity : the measurement is objective.
Reliability : the instrument produces similar measurements every time it measures the same thing
Power : the instrument can detect even small differences in magnitudes of the measurement
Between-group design
2 seperate groups
- Experimental group : participants receive treatment
- Comparison (control) group : participants do not receive the treatment
Within-group (Repeated measures) design
- Participant acts as their own control
* Each participant receives both treatment and control
Confound
anything that affects the DV that may unintentionally vary
between the study’s different experimental conditions
*IN AN EXPERIMENT ONLY
