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anatomy > exam 3 learning objectives > Flashcards

exam 3 learning objectives Flashcards

1
Q

What are the overall functions of the nervous system?

A

-stimulate muscles and glands
-action potential, producing quick responses via electrochemical mechanisms
-contribute to homeostatic feedback loops

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2
Q

What are the two major nervous systems?

A

central nervous system (cns) and the peripheral nervous system (pns)

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3
Q

what is in the cns?

A

the brain and the spinal cord

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4
Q

what is in pns?

A

nerves and ganglia (ganglion) - contains neuron cell bodies

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5
Q

Sensory division

A

“afferent”
somatic
-sensory nerves in skin, bones, skeletal muscles, joints

visceral
-detects changes in the internal body system (ex: stomach, heart, lungs)

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6
Q

motor division

A

“efferent”
somatic
-voluntary muscle contractions
-involuntary somatic reflexes (ex: a hand on a hot stove)

visceral
-mainly autonomous
-cardiac and smooth muscle
-glands

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7
Q

Ganglia (ganglion)

A

collection of neuron cell bodies specifically in the PNS. same as nuclei, location differ.

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8
Q

Nerves

A

bundles of axons in the PNS

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9
Q

Nuclei

A

collection of neuron cell bodies in the CNS

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10
Q

tracts

A

bundles of cns axons that share a common origin, destination, and function

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11
Q

columns

A

several tracks that are traveling together (CNS)

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12
Q

properties found in all neurons

A

excitability - response to stimuli
conductivity - conduct electrical signals along the nerve fiber
secretion - the axon terminals release chemical neurotransmitters that influence other cells.

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13
Q

interneurons

A

only in the cns, the neurons between the sensory and motor. integrative function

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14
Q

main parts of the neuron

A

dendrites
cell body (soma)
axon

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15
Q

cell body

A

aka: soma, neurosoma, cell body, perikaryon (in both CNS and PNS)
control center.

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16
Q

lipofuscin granules

A

products of lysosomal activity, accumulates with age. Pushes the nucleus to one side of the cell

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17
Q

dendrites

A

responsible for receiving stimuli, have tiny protrusions from the dendrites which allow contact with other neighboring dendrites (increase surface area) (dendrite spines, spikes), have chemically regulated ions gates

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18
Q

trigger zone

A

axon hillock + initial segment (important in initiating nerve cell)

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19
Q

Which part of the nerve fiber are there voltage regulated ion gates?

A

axon, the conducting region (only axon protentional here)

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20
Q

multipolar neurons

A

multiple dendrites (only one axon), most of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord

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21
Q

multipolar neurons example

A

purkinje cell of the cerebellum and the pyramidal cell

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22
Q

Bipolar neurons

A

one dendrite and axon

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23
Q

bipolar neuron example

A

olfactory cell and retinal cell

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24
Q

unipolar neuron

A

no dendrites and one axon - peripheral process axon (which is like dendrites) and central process axon

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25
Q

unipolar neuron example

A

dorsal root ganglion cell

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26
Q

anaxonic neuron

A

no axon, only dendrites, can’t transmit action potential, only is able to communicate locally.

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27
Q

retrograde

A

organelle transport towards the soma in the axon (inward transport)

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28
Q

anterograde

A

down the axon, away from the soma (outward transport)

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29
Q

anterograde fast transport

A

organelles, enzymes, synaptic vesicles, small molecules

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30
Q

anterograde slow

A

enzymes, cytoskeletal components, new axoplasm

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31
Q

retrograde fast

A

recycles materials (pathogens & toxins)

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32
Q

neuroglia/glial cells

A

non-neuron cells, out numbers neurons 10:1
-binds neurons together
-in fetus, guide neurons to where they need to be
-cover neurons (except for synapses) to aid in precise conduction
-provide physical and metabolic support

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33
Q

Olygodendrocytes

A

glial cell in the CNS, forms myelin sheaths around nerve fibers
-covers different ones at the same time, branches out

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34
Q

ependymal cells

A

glial cell in the CNS, lines the cavities and produces CSF

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35
Q

Astrocytes

A

glial cells in the CNS, regulate chemical environment (extracellular) for neurons.
-converts glucose to lactate (which is supplied)
-forms the blood-brain barrier

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36
Q

microglial cells

A

glial cells in the CNS, specialized population of macrophages, defensive cells
-remove damaged neurons and infections

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37
Q

Schwann cell

A

glial cells in the PNS, myelinate sheath certain axons and assist in regeneration of damaged fibers
wraps the axon entirely, forms one internode

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38
Q

satellite cell

A

glial cells in the PNS, surrounds and supports the cell bodies, provides electrical insulation and regulates the chemical environment, attached to the cell body

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39
Q

myelin sheath

A

made of 20% protein and 80% lipids.
- made by oligodendrocytes in cns, schwann cells in pns
-increase action potential conduction velocity.

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40
Q

internode

A

myelin-covered segments

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41
Q

mode of ranvier

A

gaps between internodes

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42
Q

neurilemma

A

the outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer of Schwann cells

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43
Q

to regenerate damaged pns nerve fiber

A

soma is intact and some of the neurilemma remains

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44
Q

unmyelinated peripheral axon

A

schwann cells folds it’s plasma membrane around several axons. Instead of the nucleus sitting on top of the membrane, it is in the middle and the axons surround the nucleus.

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45
Q

What is local potential produced by?

A

ligand-gated Na+ channels on the dendrites and soma

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46
Q

What is action potential produced by?

A

produced by voltage-gated ion channels (when there is an increase density in these channels) (opens and closes depending on membrane potential) on the trigger zone and axon.

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47
Q

what can start local potential?

A

excitatory (depolarizing, more + voltage)
inhibitory (hyperpolarizing, more - voltage)

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48
Q

what can start action potential?

A

always starts with depolarization

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49
Q

strength of local potential stimuli?

A

graded, the amount of change in membrane potential is determined by the size of the stimulus that causes it. (stronger stimuli opens more na+ channels)

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50
Q

strength of action potential stimuli?

A

All or none law - if stimulus depolarizes the neuron to threshold, the neuron fires at it’s maximum voltage, if it isn’t reached - there is no action potential

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51
Q

is local potential reversible or irreversible?

A

reversible

52
Q

is action potential reversible or irreversible?

A

irreversible

53
Q

how far does local potential go?

A

local, has effects for only a short distance from point of origin

54
Q

how far does action potential go?

A

far, it triggers neighboring membrane areas into producing action potential

55
Q

Decremental

A

local potential signal grows weaker with distance

56
Q

non decremental

A

signal maintains same strength regardless of distance in action potential

57
Q

how are local potential and action related?

A

local potential starts in the dendrites and if the signal is strong enough, it starts action potential, which release neuro transmitters to dendrites

58
Q

What affects conduction velocity of nerve signals?

A

diameter, larger axons have more surface area and conduct signals more rapidly (conduction velocity is proportional to fiber diameter)

presence or absence of myelin (and thickness) increases signal conduction

59
Q

continuous conduction

A

happens in nonmyelinated axons
as the action potential moves, the ion channels open, causing positive ions to enter into the membrane, depolarizing it. which make the action potential to move. (like a domino effect)

60
Q

saltatory conduction

A

happens in myelinated axons
the myelin sheath doesn’t allow for depolarization. but it can happen at the nodes. so it moves form node to node. giving a skipping like effect.

61
Q

four main functions of the spinal cord

A

conduction - nerve fibers conduct sensory/motor information
Neural integration
locomotion - simple repetitive muscle contractions (coordinated by central pattern generators)
reflexes

62
Q

where does the spine start

A

starts bellow the foramen magnum

63
Q

where does the spinal cord end

A

at the medullary cone/conus medullaris

64
Q

filum terminale

A

the portion of the pia matter that supports the cauda equina

65
Q

cauda equina

A

a bundle of spinal nerves

66
Q

enlargements of the spine? (top to bottom)

A

cervical and lumbosacral

67
Q

What are the three meninges

A

pia mater, arachnoid mater, dura mater (in this order)

68
Q

grey matter

A

cell bodies of neurons, with dendrites (inside spine, outside brain)

69
Q

white matter

A

myelinated axons, lipids, (outside the spine, inside the brain)

70
Q

how is the white matter organized in the spine?

A

3 columns/funiculi (top to bottom)
posterior white column
lateral
anterior

71
Q

posterior

A

back end of the body

72
Q

anterior

A

front end of the body

73
Q

lateral

A

towards the side of the body from the midline

74
Q

how is the gray matter arranged in the spine?

A

divided into three horns
-posterior gray horn
-lateral
-anterior

75
Q

Lateral grey horn, how far does it go?

A

extends only through t1-l2, related to autonomic motor nervous system

76
Q

what is in the posterior gray horn?

A

somatic and visceral,
sensory nuclei
interneuron cell bodies, this is where the soma of the interneuron cell bodies will be,
the ganglion is where the sensory cell soma is.

77
Q

where is the motor nuclei located?

A

in lateral and anterior gray horn
visceral and somatic
motor neuron cell bodies are located in the grey matter of the spine, because there is no ganglion like sensory

78
Q

describe the flow direction in the spine

A

sensory
skin-> ganglion -> dorsal horn -> brain (goes up the track)

motor
(goes down the track)
brain -> lateral/ventral horn -> motor neuron -> muscle fibers

79
Q

ipsilateral

A

when the track, in the spine, is on the same side of the body

80
Q

contralateral

A

when the track, in the spine, crosses over to the opposite side of the body

81
Q

decussation

A

the point int which some track cross over to the other side of the body

82
Q

types of ascending pathways

A

spinothalamic (anterolateral) pathway
spinocerebellar pathway
dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway

83
Q

spinothalamic (anterolateral) pathway

A

spine cord to the thalamus to cortex
crosses to the other side (decussate)
has two separate tracts
-lateral (temperature & pain)
-anterior (crude touch (gentle touching) & pressure)
first order ends at substantia gelatinosa
second order starts at the tip of dorsal horn (aka substantia gelatinosa) - ends at thalamus
third order neurons starts at thalamus and ends at cortex

84
Q

spinothalamic (anterolateral) pathway

A

spine cord to the thalamus to cortex
crosses to the other side (decussate)
has two separate tracts
-lateral (temperature & pain)
-anterior (crude touch (gentle touching) & pressure)
first order ends at substantia gelatinosa
second order starts at the tip of dorsal horn (aka substantia gelatinosa) - ends at thalamus
third order neurons starts at thalamus and ends at cortex

85
Q

spinocerebellar pathway

A

start in spinal cord, through the pons and goes up to the cerebellum, won’t be conscious of this
controls balance and posture
there is an anterior and posterior tract
take proprioceptive input

86
Q

spinocerebellar pathway

A

start in spinal cord, through the pons and goes up to the cerebellum, won’t be conscious of this
controls balance and posture
there is an anterior and posterior tract
take proprioceptive input

87
Q

dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (DCML)

A

carries fine touch and proprioception (movement and joint position)
from spine -> medulla -> cortex

88
Q

fasciculus cuneatus

A

from DCML, t6 and above, brings sensations from upper limb and chest. goes up to the medulla then at the nucleus cuneatus, (becomes 2nd order) and crosses the midline

89
Q

fasciculus gracilis

A

from DCML, below t6, brings sensations from lower limb and lower trunk. goes up the medulla and to the nucleus gracilis (2nd order) and crosses the midline.

90
Q

pyramidal tracts

A

starts in cerebral motor cortex, goes down the upper motor neuron and directly innervate (via spinal cord) down the lower motor neuron and to the muscle

91
Q

corticobulbar tract

A

a pyramidal tract, muscles of the head and the neck

92
Q

corticospinal tract

A

a pyramidal tract, muscles of the limbs and trunk

93
Q

extrapyramidal tracts (EPTs)

A

starts from the brain stem, down the upper motor neuron, indirectly by innervate via spinal cord, responsible for involuntary and automatic control of muscle

94
Q

vestibulospinal tract

A

ept, helps maintain balance

95
Q

reticulospinal tract

A

ept, transmission in pain signals, analgesic pathways

96
Q

tectospinal tract

A

ept, head-turning reflex, toward a visual/auditory stimuli

97
Q

rubrospinal tract

A

ept, regulation of muscle tone

98
Q

corticospinal pathway

A

controls contralateral muscles
have two motor neurons,
brain to spinal cord, in the middle of spinal cord, 90% of the fibers cross and 10% does not

99
Q

lateral corticospinal tract

A

the 90% fibers that cross over

100
Q

anterior corticospinal tract

A

the 10% of fibers that stay on the same side

101
Q

what are the major group of nerves

A

12 pairs of cranial nerves (some sensory/motor- most mixed)
31 pairs of spinal nerves (all mixed)

102
Q

epineurium

A

covers pns, has a lot of fascicle inside and some blood vessels

103
Q

perineurium

A

around one fascicle, in the spinal nerve

104
Q

endoneurium

A

covers a single axon, which is in a fascicle, which is in a spinal nerve

105
Q

dermatome map

A

diagram of the cutaneous regions innervated by each spinal nerve

106
Q

cervical nerves

A

c1-c8

107
Q

order of spinal nerves

A

top to bottom
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacral

108
Q

thoracic nerves

A

t1-t12

109
Q

lumbar nerves

A

L1-L5

110
Q

sacral nerves

A

s1-s5

111
Q

nerve plexus

A

a branching network of intersecting nerves
cervical plexus
brachial
lumbar
sacral
coccygeal

112
Q

what forms the sciatic nerve

A

largest branch of sacral plexus
L4, L5, s1, s2, s3

113
Q

sciatica

A

refers t the compression of the sciatic nerve
-herniated disc
-muscle spasm
-produces pain that radiates from the lower back along the leg

114
Q

reflex

A

quick, involuntary, stereotyped (occur the same way every time)
happens in glands and muscles

115
Q

visceral reflexes

A

glandular or non-skeletal muscular response carried out in the internal structure

116
Q

somatic reflexes

A

in somatic nervous system, skeletal muscle

117
Q

steps in a reflex

A

-stimulus activates receptor
-nerve impulse travels to spine
-processed in the integration center by interneurons (simplest ones don’t involve interneurons)
-motor neuron transmits impulse to effector
-effector responds to impulse from motor neuron (response is to counteract or remove the stimulus)

118
Q

monosynaptic reflex

A

very minor synaptic delay, no interneuron
direct communication between sensory and motor neuron

119
Q

polysynaptic reflex

A

has a interneuron facilitates sensory-motor communication

120
Q

stretch reflex (myotatic reflex)

A

regulates skeletal muscle length, monitored by a receptor called a muscle spindle.
so in response to the stretching of the muscle,
the muscle contracts
(ex: knee jerk - patellar)

121
Q

extrafusal muscle fibers

A

the normal muscle fibers that are found in skeletal muscles. controlled via alpha motor neuron

122
Q

muscle spindles

A

stretch receptors, primarily used to detect changes in the length in the muscle.
inside the extrafusal muscle fibers

inside the capsule of connective tissue are the intrafusal muscle fibers, which receive sensory info in the middle, controlled via gamma motor neuron

123
Q

intrafusal muscle fibers

A

specialized fibers that make up the muscle spindle

124
Q

golgi tendon reflex

A

when the muscle contraction pulls on the tendon, the collagen fibers come together and squeeze the nerve (sensory) endings between

basically muscle relaxation

protects the muscle from excessively heavy loads

125
Q

flexor (withdraw) reflex

A

the quick contraction of flexor muscles, which results in withdraw of a limb from an injurious stimulus
extensors- relaxed
flexors - contracted, stimulated

126
Q

cross extension reflex

A

extends and stiffens the limb and enables to help you keep your balance.
extensors - stimulated
flexors - relaxed

anatomy (4 decks)

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