Exam 3 final

Question 1

What are the components of the gross anatomy of the kidney?

Answer 1

The kidney includes the cortex, medulla, renal columns, pyramids, papilla, calyces, hilum, renal artery, renal vein, and renal pelvis.

Question 2

Describe the histology of the bladder.

Answer 2

The bladder has a smooth muscle structure (detrusor muscle) and a transitional epithelium that allows for expansion and contraction.

Question 3

What is the histology of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule?

Answer 3

The glomerulus consists of fenestrated capillaries, with the filtration membrane composed of the endothelium, basement membrane, and podocytes

in the Bowman’s capsule (visceral and parietal layers).

Question 4

What are the functions of the four processes of the urinary system?

Answer 4

The four processes are filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion

These maintain homeostasis by regulating blood volume, osmolarity, pH, and electrolyte balance.

Question 5

How does the urinary system maintain blood volume and blood pressure homeostasis?

Answer 5

The kidneys regulate blood volume and pressure by adjusting water reabsorption and by releasing renin, which activates the RAAS system to increase blood pressure.

Question 6

Compare and contrast blood plasma to filtrate.

Answer 6

Blood plasma contains proteins and larger molecules,

while filtrate (from glomerular filtration) is protein-free and mainly composed of water, ions, and small molecules.

Question 7

What is the role of cortical and juxtaglomerular nephrons?

Answer 7

Cortical nephrons have short loops of Henle and are involved in filtration,

while juxtaglomerular nephrons have long loops of Henle and are involved in concentration of urine.

Question 8

What is the importance of the Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)?

Answer 8

GFR is essential for kidney function, representing the rate at which blood is filtered by the glomeruli. It helps assess kidney health and waste removal efficiency.

Question 9

Explain the role of intrinsic mechanisms in GFR regulation.

Answer 9

Intrinsic mechanisms involve autoregulation (e.g., tubuloglomerular feedback),

Question 10

Explain the role of extrinsic mechanisms in GFR regulation.

Answer 10

while extrinsic mechanisms include hormonal control via the RAAS system and sympathetic nervous system.

Question 11

How do the kidneys regulate acid-base balance?

Answer 11

The kidneys regulate pH through the secretion of hydrogen ions or bicarbonate in the intercalated cells of the collecting duct, which helps maintain a stable blood pH.

Question 12

Describe the formation and maintenance of the osmolarity gradient in the kidney medulla.

Answer 12

The countercurrent multiplier mechanism (CCM) in the loop of Henle

and the countercurrent exchange mechanism (CCE) in the vasa recta

Question 13

countercurrent multiplier mechanism

Answer 13

ascending limb has low concentration relases na out and create HIGH concetration outside.

descending limb relases water out and causes concentration of na to build inside limb

desceending limb trasfer high concentration down loop and low concentration in aseding goes out to DCT

concentration keeps building high and higher until it reaches max of 1200

Question 14

countercurrent exchange mechanism

Answer 14

(CCE) in the vasa recta establish the osmolarity gradient, essential for concentrating urine.

Question 15

What hormones regulate kidney function?

Answer 15

Vasopressin (ADH),

aldosterone, RAAS,

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Question 16

Vasopressin

Answer 16

anti diuretic Produced by hypothalamus
Released by pituitary gland

expressed when h20 low

increase h20 in dct and cd (usually impermeable to water),

Works with aldosterone

Question 17

aldosterone

Answer 17

helps the kidneys retain more sodium, which leads to water retention. also works with vassoprssin

Question 18

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Answer 18

Produced by special atrial cells in heart when myocardium is stretched by plasma and decrease na reabsorbtion

Inhibit sympathetic nervous system increasing gfr

Question 19

What is the role of intercalated cells in acid-base balance?

Answer 19

Intercalated cells in the collecting duct help regulate pH by secreting hydrogen ions or bicarbonate, depending on the body’s needs.

Question 20

Type a intercalated cell

Answer 20

Function in acidosis get rid of h plus and reabsorb HCO3 and k

Question 21

B Intercalated cell

Answer 21

Function in alkalosis reabsorb H plus and get rid of HCO3

Question 22

What are the roles of theca and granulosa cells in follicle development?

Answer 22

Theca cells produce androgens, which are converted to estrogens by granulosa cells during follicle development.

Question 23

Describe the mechanism of action of birth control pills.

Answer 23

Birth control pills contain synthetic hormones (estrogen and/or progesterone) that inhibit ovulation,

alter the cervical mucus, and thin the endometrial lining to prevent pregnancy.

Question 24

What are Leydig and Sertoli cells’ roles in sperm development?

Answer 24

Leydig cells produce testosterone, which stimulates Sertoli cells to support spermatogenesis and nourish developing sperm cells.

Question 25

Describe the feedback loops involved in sperm and ova production.

Answer 25

GnRH, FSH, and LH regulate the production of sperm in males and ova in females.

In females, estrogen and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle, while in males, testosterone regulates spermatogenesis.

Question 25

What is the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonad axis, and how does it regulate reproductive function?

Answer 25

The HPG axis regulates the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus,

which stimulates FSH and LH secretion from the pituitary.

These hormones control the gonads (testes or ovaries) to regulate reproductive functions.

Question 25

What is sexual differentiation and the role of the SRY gene?

Answer 25

Sexual differentiation involves genetic (XX or XY chromosomes), gonadal (ovaries or testes), and phenotypic differentiation.

The SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers testis development and male differentiation.

Question 26

What changes occur during puberty in males and females?

Answer 26

Puberty involves the activation of the HPG axis, leading to the development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., breast development, menstruation in females; facial hair, deep voice in males).

Question 26

What is the role of meiosis in sperm and egg production?

Answer 26

Meiosis is a cell division process that reduces chromosome number by half,

ensuring that sperm and eggs have a haploid set of chromosomes, critical for fertilization.

Question 26

Describe the stages of early embryonic development after fertilization.

Answer 26

After fertilization, the zygote undergoes cleavage to form a morula, which becomes a blastocyst.

The blastocyst implants in the uterine wall, and gastrulation forms the three germ layers.

Question 27

What is the process of fertilization?

Answer 27

Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, resulting in a zygote. The sperm’s acrosome releases enzymes to penetrate the egg’s membrane.

Question 28

acrosome

Answer 28

breaks down and releases enzymes to help the sperm penetrate an egg

Question 29

How does the placenta develop, and what is its role?

Answer 29

The placenta develops from the trophoblast cells of the blastocyst. It facilitates nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between mother and fetus and secretes hormones like hCG to support pregnancy.

Question 30

How does the anti-hCG pregnancy test work?

Answer 30

The test detects human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in urine or blood, which is produced by the placenta after implantation, confirming pregnancy.

Question 31

Describe the hormonal changes during labor.

Answer 31

During labor, increased oxytocin levels stimulate uterine contractions.

Estrogen increases prostaglandin production, which further promotes contractions, while progesterone levels drop.

Question 32

Respiratory acidosis

Answer 32

occurs when CO₂ is retained due to impaired ventilation, leading to an increase in carbonic acid and a decrease in blood pH.

Question 33

Metabolic acidosis

Answer 33

occurs when there is an accumulation of acid (e.g., lactic acid, ketoacids) or a loss of bicarbonate (e.g., diarrhea), causing a decrease in blood pH.

Question 34

Respiratory alkalosis

Answer 34

occurs when there is excessive CO₂ loss, usually due to hyperventilation, leading to an increase in blood pH.

Question 35

Metabolic alkalosis

Answer 35

occurs when there is an excess of bicarbonate or a loss of acid (e.g., vomiting, diuretics), causing an increase in blood pH.

Question 36

Chemical buffers

Answer 36

These include bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffers that immediately bind or release H⁺ to stabilize pH.

Question 37

Respiratory compensation

Answer 37

The lungs can adjust the rate of CO₂ exhalation to help compensate for acidosis (by blowing off CO₂) or alkalosis (by retaining CO₂).

Question 38

Renal compensation

Answer 38

The kidneys regulate acid-base balance by adjusting the excretion of H⁺ and bicarbonate in the urine, a slower but more effective long-term mechanism.