Exam 3 (Final) Flashcards
1
Q
what is sensation?
A
elementary components (building blocks) of an experience
2
Q
what is perception?
A
collection of processes used to make meaningful interpretation of sensations
3
Q
what are the 3 steps of creating internal interpretation of external world?
A
- translate
- identify
- interpret
4
Q
what happens in each step of internally interpretating external world?
A
- translate - stimuli comes in many forms and brain translates and communicates with electrochemicals
- identify - components of translated neural messages are extracted and sent to processing stations
- interpret - principles of organization + existing knowledge are used to reconstruct world
5
Q
what is light?
A
form of electromagnetic energy processed by visual system
6
Q
what are wavelengths (light)?
A
physical distances between one energy cycle to next
7
Q
what are hues (light)?
A
dimension of light that produces color
8
Q
what is intensity/amplitude (light)?
A
- amount of light falling on an object
- brightness - changes in intensity
9
Q
what is purity?
A
- determined by mix of wavelengths present
- influences saturation (richness of perceived color)
10
Q
how do wavelengths influence the light we see?
A
- light we see is the combination of the wavelengths reflected by a material
- which wavelengths are absorbed/reflected determines color
11
Q
what is the function of the cornea and lens?
A
help focus light to back of eye
12
Q
what is the function of the pupil?
A
hole in eye that allows light to enter
13
Q
what is the function of the iris?
A
- colored part of eye
- muscles around iris change pupil size to control amount of light that enters eye
14
Q
what happens to the pupil in dim and bright light?
A
- dim light = large pupil
- bright light = small pupil
15
Q
what is accomodation (in visual processing)?
A
process where lens changes shape to temporarily help focus light on retina
16
Q
what is the retina?
A
- thin layer on back of eye that contains sensory receptors
- area of translation
17
Q
what are rods?
A
- receptors located on sides of retina
- useful at night because more sensitive to light
18
Q
what are cones?
A
- receptors located in fovea (middle of retina)
- process color/fine details (visual acuity)
19
Q
how do visual signals enter brain?
A
rods/cones collect info then send to brain via optic nerve
20
Q
how are left and right visual fields processed?
A
- left visual field → right side of eyes → optic nerve →optic chiasm → right hemisphere
- right visual field → left side of eyes → optic nerve →optic chiasm → left hemisphere
21
Q
where is the visual cortex located?
A
occipital lobe
22
Q
what are feature detectors?
A
cells that detect specific visual events
23
Q
what is prosopagnosia?
A
inability to recognize faces due to brain injury
24
Q
what are the 2 theories of color vision?
A
- trichromatic theory
- opponent processes
* there’s evidence for both!
25
what is trichromatic theory of color vision?
* color info extracted by comparing activation of 3 different types of cone receptors
* all colors are a mixture of primary colors: red, green, blue
26
what is color blindness?
lack of color-associated cones → inability to distinguish specific colors
27
what is the opponent process theory of color vision?
* cells in visual pathway increase activation levels to one color and decrease activation to another color
* ex: viewing red = increased activation for red and decreased activation for green
28
what is Gestalt psychologists' argument about innate organizing patterns?
* we are born with organizing patterns of perception → we divide any visual scene into figure + ground
* figure = object of focus
* ground = background
29
What are the 5 Principles of Organization (Gestalt)?
1. Law of Proximity
2. Law of Similarity
3. Law of Closure
4. Law of Good Continuation
5. Law of Common Fate
30
what is the law of proximity (Gestalt)?
objects located near each other are grouped together
31
what is the law of similarity (Gestalt)?
items that share physical properties are grouped together
32
what is the law of closure (Gestalt)?
if there is a gap, people tend to perceive object as a whole
33
what is the law of good continuation (Gestalt)?
if lines cross/get interrupted, people still tend to see continuously flowing lines
34
what is the law of common fate (Gestalt)?
things moving in same direction are grouped together
35
what is bottom-up processing?
processing controlled by physical messages delivered to senses
36
what is top-down processing?
processing controlled by beliefs/expectations about how world is organized
37
what contributes to our general perception of movement?
* changes in retinal image
* changes in motion of eyes
* changes in relative position of objects
38
what is the difference between monocular and binocular depth perception?
* monocular: require input from only one eye
* binocular: require input from both eyes
39
what is sound?
physical message of auditory system that travels as a wave through air/water
40
what is frequency (Hertz)?
* number of times pressure wave moves from peak to peak per second
* people can hear 20-20,000 Hz
41
what is pitch?
processing of certain frequencies
42
what is pressure amplitude?
* loudness
* change in sound intensity
* measured in decibels
43
how is sound processed and translated to neuron firing?
sounds enters ear → travels to eardrum → eardrum vibrates → vibrations processed and intensified and enter cochlea → sound processor turns vibrations into neural impulses
44
how are auditory messages transmitted to brain?
* auditory nerve transmits messages to brain
* left ear → right hemisphere
* right ear → left hemisphere
45
what is the auditory cortex located?
* temporal lobe (behind ear)
* certain areas specialized for low/high frequencies
46
how does auditory perception occur?
* brain uses incoming info + past knowledge to create auditory perception
* info separated into figure + ground
* auditory info grouped if similar / occuring close in time
47
what are the 3 types of skin senses?
1. touch
2. temperature
3. pain
48
what is touch (pressure)?
* mechanical/physical pressure delivered to body disrupts receptor cells in skin
* pressure → neural impulse → spinal cord → brain
* used to identify properties of objects/locations
49
what is temperature?
* processed by thermoreceptors in skin
* cold fibers - neurons that respond when temp. of skin reduces
* warm fibers - neurons that respond when temp. of skin increases
* body responds to temp. **indirectly** (based on temp. of body not environment)
50
what is pain?
* adaptive reaction generated in response to events that cause tissue damage
* skin pain receptors (nociceptors) activated by external and internal pain
51
what is the gate-control theory?
* neural impulses generated by pain receptors can be blocked (gated) in spinal cord by signals from brain
* adaptive - allows someone to be effective despite injury
52
what opens and closes pain gates (gate-control theory)?
* closes: rubbing injury, placing ice near injury, drug treatments, cognitive states
* opens: mental processes like worrying/focusing on painful stimulus
53
what are chemoreceptors?
receptor cells that react to invisible molecules scattered in air/dissolved in liquids → taste + smell
54
what differentiates the senses?
* light/sound = waves
* touch = pressure
* taste/smell = chemical
55
what is olfaction?
* sense of smell
* airborne molecules enter nose/back of throat → interact with receptor cells → neural response generated and travels to olfactory bulb → sent to various brain locations
56
what are the 3 brain locations involved in smell?
1. amygdala (emotional processing)
2. hypothalamus (relay center)
3. hippocampus (**memories**)
57
what is gustation?
sense of taste
58
what is the difference between taste and flavor?
* taste = neural activity
* flavor = perceptional experience
59
what are taste buds?
* receptor cell on tongue
* sensitive to different types of taste
* send neural signals to brain
60
what is consciousness?
awareness of one's internal + external states resulting from brain activity
61
what is attention?
internal processes used to set priorities for mental functioning (focus on selective parts of environment and ignore others)
62
what are the findings of the Dichotic Listening studies?
* different auditory messages were delivered simultaneously to each ear
* focusing on one message → poor processing of other message
* humans monitor environment without conscious awareness
63
what is the Cocktail Party Effect?
ability to focus on one auditory message and ignore others
64
what is automaticity?
* fast/effortless processing requiring little or no focused attention
* created through practice
* attention used to process new info while brain still performs automatic tasks
65
what is visual neglect?
* tendency to ignore things that occur on one side of body
* caused by right parietal lobe damage
66
what is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
* psychological disorder marked by difficulties in concentrating and sustaining attention for extended time periods
* subtypes: hyperactive-implusive, inattentive, combined
67
what is sleep?
altered state of consciousness
68
what are Circadian rhythms?
* biological activities that rise and fall in accordance with 24-hour day
* regulated by hypothalamus
69
what are the stages/waves of sleep?
* relaxed brain = alpha waves (slow, high amplitude)
* Stage N1 = drifting thought and theta waves (lower in amplitude, more irregular)
* Stage N2 = theta waves interrupted by sleep spindles (various brain functions) and K complexes (triggered by external stimuli)
* Stage N3 = deep sleep and delta activity (synchronized, slow wave)
* REM (rapid eye movement) = body activated but fully asleep/muscles relaxed and dreaming
70
what are the 2 theories of sleep?
* restorative: sleep allows body to rest and repair itself
* Circadian Rhythm: decreased activity in dark reduces vulnerability/exposure to predators
71
what are dreams?
products of altered state of consciousness in which images/fantasies are confused with reality
72
what are the 2 types of sleep disorders?
1. dyssomnias
2. parasomnias
73
what are the 3 dyssomnias?
1. insomnia - difficulty falling/maintaining sleep
2. hypersomnia - excessive sleepiness
3. narcolepsy - extreme sleepiness
74
what are the 3 parasomnias?
1. nightmares - frightening/anxiety-arousing dreams during REM sleep
2. night terrors - terrifying experience in which person awakes in a panic
3. sleepwalking - person wanders while sleeping
75
what is substance use disorder?
drug use that remains compulsive despite negative consequences
76
what are psychoactive drugs?
drugs that affect behavior and mental processes through alterations of conscious awareness
77
what is drug tolerance?
increasing amounts of drug needed to produce same physical/behavioral effects
78
what is drug dependence?
* condition in which one experiences physical/psychological need for continued use of a drug
* can result in death
79
what is withdrawal?
* physical reactions one experiences when drug use is discontinued
* sweating, headache, tremors, vomiting
80
what are the 5 types of psychoactive drugs?
1. stimulants
2. depressants
3. opioids
4. hallucinogens/psychedelics
5. combination
81
what are stimulants?
* increase behavioral/mental activity
* ex: amphetamines, methamphetamine, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine
82
what are depressants?
* decrease behavioral/mental activity
* ex: anti-anxiety drugs and alcohol
83
what are opioids?
* reduce pain/bring pleasure
* ex: heroin, morphine, codeine
84
what are hallucinogens/psychedelics?
* alter thoughts/perceptions
* ex: LSD, PCP, peyote, psilocybin, mushrooms
85
what are combination psychoactive drugs?
* mixed effects
* ex: marijuana and MDMA
86
what is the reward circuit?
* mesolimbic dopamine pathway
* reward → dopamine pathways
87
what is memory?
capacity to preserve/recover info
88
what is encoding (memory)?
processes that determine/control how memories are formed
89
what is storage (memory)?
processes that determine/control how memories are stored/kept over time
90
what is retrieval (memory)?
processes that determine/control how memories are recovered and translated into performance
91
what is sensory memory?
exact replica of environmental message that lasts for seconds or less
92
what is icon memory?
system that produces and stores visual sensory memories (snapshot of an image)
93
what is echoic memory?
system that produces and stores auditory sensory memories (ex: sound of someone's voice)
94
what is short-term memory?
* limited-capacity system that we use to hold info after it has been analyzed for periods lasting less than 1-2 minutes
* holding space while brain decides whether info is remembered or forgotten
* used to store, think about, and reason with info (working memory)
95
what is decay (memory)?
* process in which short-term memories are lost spontaneously over time
* caused by interference of new info
96
what is limited memory span?
number of items a person can recall in the exact order of presentation (7±2)
97
what is chunking (memory)?
arranging incoming info into meaningful/familiar patterns
98
what is long-term memory?
* system used to maintain info for extended periods
* info must be encoded for retrieval
99
what are episodic memories?
memories of a particular event/episode that happened to you personally
100
what is semantic memory?
knowledge about world stored as facts that are not related to personal experience
101
what is procedural memory?
knowledge about how to do things
102
what is elaboration (memory)?
actively relating new info to already-stored content of long-term memory
103
what is relational processing (memory)?
encoding similarities between new pieces of info
103
what is distributed practice (memory)?
repetitions of new material
104
what is a retrieval cue?
anything that helps a person recall a memory
105
what is free recall?
testing condition in which someone is asked to recall info without explicit retrieval cues
106
what is cued recall?
testing condition in which someone is asked to recall information after receiving a retrieval cue
107
what are schemas?
cognitive structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, process, and use info
108
what is explicit (declarative) memory?
conscious, willful remembering
109
what is implicit memory?
remembering that occurs without conscious awareness or willfull intent
110
what is forgetting?
* inability to retrieve a memory from long-term storage
* occurs rapidly over the first few days then levels off
111
what is the decay theory of forgetting?
memories fade due to passage of time
112
what is retroactive interference?
formation of new memories reduces recovery of old memories
113
what is proactive interference?
old memories interfere with recovery of new memories
114
what is amnesia?
forgetting caused by physical problems in brain (injury/disease)
115
what is retrograde amnesia?
* memory loss for events that occured prior to injury
* can form new memories
116
what is anterograde amnesia?
* memory loss for events that occur after the point of the physical injury (implicit memory still intact)
* cannot form new memories
117
where are memories stored?
* hippocampus
* different brain areas dependent on sensory associations
118
what is thinking?
* processes that underlie mental manipulation of knowledge
* used to: reach goals, solve problems, understand/communicate with others
119
what is cognition?
all activities that underlie all forms of thought
120
what is language?
gives us the ability to communicate our thoughts, feelings, and needs to others
121
what is the Linguistic Relativity hypothesis?
language not only shapes how we think but also influences how we perceive the world
122
what is grammar?
rules of language that enable the communicator to combine symbols to convey meaning
123
what is phonology?
rules of combining sounds to make words
124
what is syntax?
rules of combining words to make sentences
125
what are semantics?
rules used to communicate meaning
126
what are morphemes?
smallest language units that have meaning
127
what are phonemes?
basic sounds of speech (building blocks of language)
128
what is surface structure?
literal ordering of words in a sentence
129
what is deep structure?
underlying meaning of the sentence
130
what is language comprehension?
ability to derive meaning from written/oral language
131
what is pragmatics?
practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and produce an appropriate response
132
how does language develop?
cooing (vowel sounds) → babbling (vowel/consonant combos) → vocalizations → increase in vocab → ability to produce/comprehend sentences
133
what is a category?
* a class of objects (people, places, things) that most people agree belong together
* allow us to infer invisible properties about objects
* allow you to make predictions about the future
134
what are defining features?
* set of features necessary to make objects acceptable members of a category
* object must have ALL defining features
135
what is family resemblance?
* core feature that category members share
* member of a category must have some but not all
136
what is a prototype?
best/most representative member of a category (ex: fruit → apple)
137
what are category exemplars?
specific examples of category members that are stored in long-term memory
138
basic-level categories
category level of the hierarchy that offers the most useful info
139
what is a well-defined problem?
* well-stated goal
* clear starting point
* easy to tell when solution is reached
140
what is an ill-defined problem?
* no well-stated goal
* no clear starting point
* no mechanism to evaluate progress
141
what is problem representation?
understanding info we have and how it can be used
142
what is functional fixedness?
tendency to see objects (and their functions) in certain fixed ways
143
what are algorithms?
step-by-step rules/procedures that guarantee a solution if applied correctly
144
what are heuristics?
rules of thumb to solve problems but don't offer guaranteed solution
145
what are the 3 types of heuristics?
1. means-end analysis
2. working backwards
3. searching for analogies
146
what is means-end analysis (heuristics)?
devising means/actions to lessen distance between starting point and end goal
147
what is working backwards (heuristics)?
starting at goal and trying to move backwards towards the starting point
148
what is searching for analogies (heuristics)?
working to find a connection between current problem and previously solved task
149
what is insight?
moment when a problem solution pops into one's mind
150
what is decision making?
thought process involved in evaluating and choosing from among a set of alternatives
151
what is framing?
how the alternatives in a decision making situation are presented
152
what is intelligence?
* internal capacity or ability that accounts for individual differences in mental performance
* ability that enables us to adapt successfully to changing environments
153
who is the scientist behind the psychometric approach to intelligence?
Spearman
154
what is the psychometric approach to intelligence?
measure of intelligence based on performance on standardized psychological tests
155
what is Spearman's G?
* general intelligence
* part of psychometric approach to intelligence
* overarching measure of intelligence
* doesn't account for all variability - S (specific intelligence) must also be considered
156
who is the scientist behind the hierarchical models of intelligence?
Thurstone
157
what are the hierarchical models of intelligence?
* 7 primary mental abilities
1. verbal comprehension
2. verbal fluency
3. numerical ability
4. spatial ability
5. memory
6. perceptual speed
7. reasoning
157
who are the scientists behind fluid vs. crystalized intelligence?
Cattell and Horn
157
what is fluid intelligence?
* natural (innate) ability to reason, solve problems, remember
* based on genetics (neuron processing speed)
* linked to executive functions
* declines more with age
157
what is the fluid vs. crystalized model of intelligence?
general intelligence (G) is comprised of fluid and crystalized intelligence
157
what is crystalized intelligence?
knowledge and abilities acquired as a result of experience
157
who is the scientist behind the theory of multiple intelligences?
Gardner
158
what is the theory of multiple intelligences?
* people possess set of separate/independent intelligences
1. musical
2. bodily-kinesthetic
3. logical-mathematical
4. linguistic
5. spatial
6. interpersonal (other people)
7. intrapersonal (self)
8. naturalistic
159
who is the scientist behind the triarchic theory of multiple intelligences?
Sternberg
160
what is the triarchic theory of multiple intelligences?
* 3 types of intelligence
1. analytical - conventional tests
2. creative - create/invent/discover
3. practical - street smarts
161
what are achievement tests?
psychological tests that measure current level of knowledge or competence on a specific subject (ex: taking a test after learning a new chapter in psych)
162
what are aptitude tests?
psychological tests that measure ability to learn/acquire knowledge on a particular subject (ex: SAT/ACT)
163
what is the intelligence quotient (IQ)?
* developed to determine one's **mental age**
* intelligence quotient = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
* average = 100
164
what is deviation IQ?
* intelligence score that is derived from determining where one's performance sits in age-based distribution of test scores
* corrects problems with original IQ calculation
* compared to others in your age range
* average = 100
165
where do most people fall on IQ scale?
70-130
166
what constitutes an intellectual disability?
IQ below 70 and deficits in daily living abilities
167
what qualifies someone as being gifted?
IQ of 130 or higher
168
what is a savant?
* limited intellectual or social ability but tremendous ability in one domain
* more common in men and often associated with autism
* ex: talented sculptor who cannot read/write or communicate well
169
what is tacit knowledge?
unspoken practical knowledge about how to perform well on the job
170
what is the Flynn Effect?
IQ test scores have been rising over time with each generation
171
what is motivation?
set of factors that initiate and direct behavior (usually towards a goal)
172
what are emotions?
* psychological events involving:
1. physiological reaction (bodily response)
2. expressive reaction (facial expression)
3. subjective experience (conscious feeling)
173
what are the internal factors of motivation?
1. instincts
2. drive
174
what are instincts?
unlearned characteristic patterns of responding that are controlled by specific triggering stimuli in the world
175
what is drive?
* psychological state that arises in response to an internal physiological need
* body seeks **homeostasis** (stable internal conditions)
176
what are the external factors of motivation?
1. incentive motivation
2. achievement motivation
177
what is incentive motivation?
* external factors in environment that have pulling effect on behavior
* goal-directed
178
what is achievement motivation?
* internal need/drive to succeed that is possessed by all individuals to a certain degree
* how much someone values a task and how confident they are in succeeding influence behavior!
179
how do people who want to obtain a skill differ from people who want to be better than others?
* obtain skill: retain info, engage in learning, seek out challenges
* outperform: overly concerned about errors and miss valuable learning opportunities
180
what is intrinsic motivation?
* goal-directed behavior that is entirely self-motivated
* doing something because we want to (not a reward or a return to homeostasis)
181
what happens when you introduce rewards for behavior?
behavior is reduced because it is no longer intrinsic motivation
182
what are Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
1. immediate physiological needs (bottom)
2. safety
3. love (affection/belonging)
4. esteem (respect)
5. self-actualization (peak)
183
what internal factors can influence hunger?
* volume/contents of stomach
* **changes in chemical signals**
184
what parts of the brain are involved in hunger?
* hypothalamus - chemical signals
* hindbrain - relay of info/initiation of eating
* hippocampus - memory of tastes/what makes us sick/etc.
185
what are the external factors that control hunger?
* culture
* food cues
186
what is a set point?
a natural body weight that body seeks to maintain
187
what is metabolic rate?
how quickly one burns calories
188
what factors contribute to obesity? (review more than memorize)
* genetics
* metabolic rate
* set point
* number of fat cells
* learned eating habits
* cultural role modeling
* level of stress
* lack of access to nutritious food
* eating disorders
* sleep
189
what is anorexia nervosa?
restriction of food intake and fear of weight gain
190
what is bulimia nervosa?
cycles of binge eating and purging
191
what is binge eating disorder?
binge eating without purging
192
who are the scientists who research the sexual response cycle?
Masters and Johnson
193
what are the 4 stages of the sexual response cycle?
1. excitement
2. plateau
3. orgasmic
4. resolution
194
what occurs during the excitement stage of the sexual response cycle?
* changes in muscle tension
* increased heart rate and blood pressure
* rushing of blood to genital organs
195
what occurs during the plateau stage of the sexual response cycle?
* arousal increases more slowly toward preorgasm maximum point
* lubrication increases
* testicals rise
* uterus lifts and changes shape to make space in vaginal canal
196
what occurs during the orgasmic stage of the sexual response cycle?
* rhythmic contractions of sex organs
* ejaculation for those with penis
* different subject experiences of pleasure
197
what occurs during the resolution stage of the sexual response cycle?
* arousal returns to normal levels
* refractory period for those with a penis
* release of oxytocin
198
what are sexual scripts?
learned cognitive programs that instruct us how, why, and what to do in interactions with sexual partners
199
how do cis-men and cis-women select sexual partners?
* cis-men: brief interactions, younger partners, variety, attractiveness
* cis-women: financial stability
200
what external factors influence sexual behavior?
* explicit visual stimuli
* physical touch
* good body odor
201
what are the 3 components of emotions?
1. communicate to ourselves
2. communicate to others
3. call us to action (motivate)
202
what are the 6 basic emotions?
1. happiness
2. sadness
3. fear
4. disgust
5. anger
6. surprise
203
what causes anger?
* violated expectations
* unpleasant events
* major social stresses
204
what is disgust?
aversion towards something distasteful
205
why isn't happiness a productive life goal?
* subjective
* ever changing
* fleeting
* achieved by social comparison
206
what are the 4 theories of emotions?
1. common sense
2. James-Lange
3. Cannon-Bard
4. two-factor
207
what is the common sense theory of emotions?
* stimulus → subjective experience → body response
* ex: My heart is pounding because I feel afraid (bodily response caused by subjective experience)
208
what is the James-Lange theory of emotions?
* stimulus → body response → subjective experience
* ex: I feel afraid because my heart is pounding (subject experience derived from bodily response)
209
what is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotions?
* stimulus → body response and subjective experience occur simultaneously
* ex: The dog makes me feel afraid and makes my heart pound (stimulus causes both)
210
what is the two-factor theory of emotions?
* stimulus → body response → **interpretation** → subjective experience
* ex: My pounding heart means I'm afraid because I interpret the situation as dangerous (interpretation of body response leads to subject experience)
