Exam 1 Flashcards
what are the roots of the word “psychology?”
psyche (breath, spirit, soul) and logos (study of)
what two fields did early psychology develop out of?
philosophy (questions about the mind) and physiology (questions about the brain)
what is the definition of psychology?
the scientific study of both behavior and mind
what is scientific study?
knowledge discovered through empirical observation
what is behavior?
any kind of observable action
what is the mind?
conscious experience - sensations, perceptions, thoughts, emotions
what is dualism?
the mind and body are separate entities (Descartes)
who was the thinker behind dualism?
Descartes
where do clinical psychologists work?
clinical and academic settings
what do clinical psychologists do?
assess, diagnose, and treat psychological problems
what do applied psychologists do?
extending psychological principles to practical problems in the world
where do applied psychologists work?
private industry, schools, academic settings
what do research psychologists do?
conduct research to discover the basic principlies of behavior and mind
where do research psychologists work?
academic settings and private industry
what is the nativism vs. empiricism debate?
- nurture vs. nature (learning from environment)
- it’s a mix of both, not either or
what is natural selection?
traits which improve likelihood of survival are more likely to be passed down through generations (Darwin)
who was the thinker behind natural selection?
Charles Darwin
who was Wilhelm Wundt?
- father of modern psychology
- advocated for using scientific method
- studied immediate conscious experience
what is structuralism?
study of structure of mind by breaking it into elementary parts (sensations + feelings)
who were the thinkers behind structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener
how was structuralism studied?
self reports - experience sensations and then describe them (perception)
what is functionalism?
- interested in purpose of a process rather than its components
- what is adaptive value of a certain mental process
- individual differences and applied uses of psychology
who were the functionalist thinkers?
William James and James Rowland Angell
who is Mary Whiton Calkins?
- 1st woman to have a research lab and be APA President
- study of self (as an adaptation to environment)
- student of William James’ (functionalist)
what is behaviorism?
- focused only on observable behavior
- nurture > nature - anyone can be trained into anything
who were the behaviorist thinkers?
John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner
what was John B. Watson’s claim?
- that he could take a dozen healthy infants and turn them into anything (doctor, lawyer, artists, thief, etc.)
what is psychoanalysis?
- focused on influence of the unconscious mind
- free association, dream analysis, exploration of unconscious mind
- unmet unconscious desires = distress
- negative, sex-focused, dark
who was the thinker behind psychoanalysis?
Sigmund Freud
what is humanism?
- focused on positive aspects of human condition and capacity for change
- unconditional positive regard for clients / client-centered therapy
- direct response to Freud’s pessimism
who were the thinkers behind humanism?
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and Martin Seligman
what is the eclectic approach of modern clinical practice?
selecting and adopting info from many different theories
what is the cognitive revolution?
shift away from behaviorism toward mental states and internal processes
what influenced the cognitive revolution?
computers and technology
what is the 3 parts of the cognitive triangle?
- thoughts
- feelings
- behaviors
what is evolutionary psychology?
thoughts and behaviors are molded by pressures of evolution
who was Lev Vygotsky?
- highlighted interaction between people, cultures, and learning
- experiential learning
- noted influence of society, culture, context (nurture)
who was the thinker behind experiential learning?
Lev Vygotsky
what can cultures be based upon?
- gender
- race/ethnicity
- nationality
- affinities
what are collectivist communities?
focused on what’s best for community
what are individualist communities?
focused on self
what is the scientific method?
multistep technique that generates empirical knowledge
what is empirical knowledge?
knowledge derived from systematic observations of the world
what are the steps of the scientific method?
- observe
- detect regularities
- generate hypothesis
- observe
what is the operational definition of observations?
the specific measurement of an observation (ex. score on an IQ test)
what are the detailed steps of the scientific method?
- research question
- literature review
- form hypothesis
- design study
- conduct study
- analyze data
- report results
what is a theory?
- model of interconnected ideas/concepts that explain what is observed and makes predictions about future events
- based on empirical evidence
what is a hypothesis?
a specific, testable prediciton that is more narrow than the theory it is based upon
what are the 3 types of psych research designs?
- descriptive
- correlational
- experimental
what is a variable?
something in the world that can vary and that a researcher can manupulate, measure, or both
what is descriptive research?
research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically
what are case studies?
a descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination of an unusual person or organization
describe the case study of Phineas Gage
- metal rod went through head
- still able to function and talk but had personality changes
- showed that different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions/parts of who we are
what are the 2 types of observational studies?
- participant observation
- naturalistic observation
what is participant observation?
- a type of desciptive study in which the researcher is involved in the situation
- ex. researcher enters cult as cult member
- can influence results/external validity
what is external validitiy
can results expand outside of the particular setting in which they were observed
what is naturalistic observation?
a type of descriptive study in which researcher is a passive observer, separated from situation and making no attempt to change/alter ongoing behavior
what is reactivity?
- Hawthorne effect
- knowledge that one is being observed alters behavior
what is observer bias?
systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s expectations
what are psychological tests?
designed to measure differences among people
what are correlational studies?
research method that describes and predicts how variables are naturally related in the real world without the researcher attempting to alter them or assign causation
what is zero correlation?
- value = 0
- one variable is not predictably related to the other
what is positive correlation?
- value = 0-1
- two variables move in the same direction
what is negative correlation?
- value = -1-0
- two variables move in opposite directions
what is a strong correlation?
- strong = 0.5
- very strong = 0.8
what is the directionality problem?
researchers find a relationship between two variables but cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other
what is the third variable problem?
when a researcher cannot directly manipulate variables, they cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable isn’t the actual cause of the differences in variables of interest
what is an experiment?
a research method that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables
what is an independent variable?
variable that is manipulated
what is a dependent variable?
variable that is measured
how are variables defined?
- operationally
- qualified and quantified
what is the experimental group?
participants in an experiment who receive the treatment
what is a control group?
participants in an experiment who receive no intervention or who receive an intervention unrelated to the independent variable being investigated
what is a confounding variable?
anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study
what does random sampling do?
diversifies sample and increases likelihood of generalizability
what does random assignment do?
balances out known and unknown factors, increasing likelihood of equivalent groups
what is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?
random sampling applies to how you select participants from a population, random assignment applies to how you place participants into groups
what is selection bias?
unintended differences between participants in different groups
what are institutional review boards?
groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure it meets standards for physical and emotional well-being
what is informed consent?
people who volunteer for psych research have the right to know what will happen to them during the course of the study
who cannot provide informed consent?
- people under the age of 18
- dependent adults
what must be done if deception is used during a study?
participants must be given a careful debriefing
what is confidentiality?
personal, identifying info about participants cannot be shared with others
what is anonymity?
researchers don’t collect personal, identifying info
what is construct validity?
do variables measure what they are supposed to measure
what is external validity?
the degree to which findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations
what is internal validity?
- the degree to which effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds
- i.e. results due to manipulation not uncontrolled factors
what is variability?
how widely dispersed values are from each other and from the mean
what is standard deviation?
how far each value is, on average, from the mean
what is neuroscience?
study of the connection between brain and behavior
what are sensory neurons?
bring info from world into body
what are interneurons?
pass communications between sensory and motor neurons
what are motor neurons?
carry messages away from CNS to muscles and glands
what are neurons composed of?
- soma
- dendrites
- axon
- terminal buttons
what is the soma?
- cell body of neuron
- contains DNA
what are dendrites?
extensions from soma that receive info
what is the axon?
extends from cell body of neuron and carries electrical potential
what are terminal buttons?
emits a chemical message that reaches adjacent neurons
what are the qualities of an axon at rest?
- inside of axon is more negative than outside
- resting membrane potential = -70 mV
what happens during an action potential?
- ion channels open in membrane allowing sodium ions to enter axon
- sodium entry shifts internal membrane potential toward positive value
- resting potential is restored when other channels open and sodium is pumped back out
what are the characteristics of an action potential?
- fixed in strength
- all or none in nature
- speed varies by size and shape of axon
what are glial cells?
provide support and protection for neurons
what are myelin cells?
type of glial cell that wraps around neuron axon to increase speed of action potential
what is the synapse?
junction between an axon terminal and an adjacent nerve cell
what is a neurotransmitter?
molecules released from axon terminal into synapse when action potential arrives
what are the steps of synaptic transmission?
- action potential reaches end of axon
- vesicles transport neurotransmitters to membrane and releases them into synapse
- NTs interact with postsynaptic receptors
- may cause action postential in postsynaptic neuron
- NT deactivation/reuptake starts
what is glutamate?
- excitatory neurotransmitter
- most common NT in brain
what is dopamine?
- mixed neurotransmitter
- involved in reward/pleasure systems (“feel good” NT)
what is acetylcholine?
- excitatory neurotransmitter
- helps with communication between motor neurons and muscles
what is serotonin?
- inhibitory neurotransmitter
- involved in sleep, mood, appetite, and general arousal
what is GABA?
- inhibitory neurotransmitter
- regulates anxiety
what are agonist psychoactive drugs?
- drugs that mimic/enhance neurotransmitters
- ex. amphetamine = stimulates dopamine release and nicotine = acts like acetylcholine
- can increase neurotransmitters made, block their reuptake, and activate/increase effects
what are antagonist psychoactive drugs?
- drugs that block the action of neurotransmitters
- can decrease amount of neurotransmitters, destroy neurotransmitters in synapse, and block neurotransmitter binding
what is the central nervous system?
brain and spinal cord
what is the peripheral nervous system?
somatic and autonomic systems
what is the somatic nervous system?
voluntary movements
what is the autonomic nervous system?
- involuntary system of regulation
- ex. heart rate, digestion, breathing
what makes up the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
what is the sympathetic nervous system?
fight, flight, or freeze response
what is the parasympathetic nervous system?
typical regulation
what are the 3 ways we study the human brain?
- brain damage
- activating brain
- brain recordings
how can we activate the brain for study?
chemical injection or electrode placement
what is transcranial magnetic stimulation?
type of brain activation in which magnetic coils in brain cause neurons to fire
what are structural brain imaging methods?
- CT and MRI
- show structure and anatomy
what are functional brain imaging methods?
- EEG, PET scan, fMRI
- show activity in brain
what is a brain altering activity?
transcranial magnetic stimulation
what is fMRI?
records flow of oxygenated blood in brain
what is the reticular formation?
arousal and sleep
what is the pons?
unconscious movement and reflexes
what is the medulla?
heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure
what is the cerebellum?
balance and coordination
what is the hindbrain?
foundational functions of body
what is the midbrain?
movement and sensory relay centers
what is the substantia nigra?
helps control movements
what is the superior colliculus?
sensory relay center and coordination of responses
what is the inferior colliculus?
auditory sound relay and coordinates responses to sound
what is the cerebral cortex?
- largest region in brain
- higher mental processes
what is the thalamus?
relay center for sensory info from body to cortices
what is the hypothalamus?
- regulates motivation and pituitary gland
- helps direct endocrine system
what is the pituitary gland?
regulates and monitors hormones
what is the amygdala?
emotional processing and reactivity
what is the hippocampus?
memory
what is the frontal lobe?
executive function, decision-making, reasoning, problem solving, short-term memory, speech output, voluntary movement, personality
what is the parietal lobe?
processing senses, somatosensory input, spatial awareness, calculation
what is the occipital lobe?
vision and visual recognition
what is the temporal lobe?
hearing, language comprehension, encoding memories
what is lateralization?
movement on left side of body controlled by right side of brain and vice versa
what is Broca’s aphasia?
deficit in ability to produce speech
what is Wernicke’s aphasia?
- deficit in ability to produce/process language (speech not impacted)
what is the corpus callosum?
bundle of nerves that connect left and right hemispheres of brain
what functions are in the left hemisphere?
- language functions (speaking, reading, writing)
- analytical functions
what functions are in the right hemisphere?
- nonverbal abilities (music, art, perceptual/spacio-manipulative skills)
- some language comprehension
what is the endocrine system?
hypothalamus regulates secretion of hormones into blood to affect sexual behavior, growth, and stress responses
what is an adaptation?
a trait that has been selected for to improve survival
how many chromosomes does each human cell have?
46 chromosomes, 23 pairs
what are genes?
segments of chromosomes that contain instructions for influencing/creating hereditary characteristics
what is the difference between a genotype and a phenotype?
- genotype = actual genetic message
- phenotype = trait’s observable characteristic
what are epigenetics?
environment’s influence on gene expression
what is personality?
distinguishing pattern of psychological characteristics that differentiate us from others and leads us to act consistently across situations
what are self-report inventories?
questions about how one typically thinks, feels, and behaves
what is reliability?
how consistent a measure is
what is validity?
how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure
what is predictive validity?
how well do test scores predict what we are intending to measure
what is concurrent validity?
how well does new test score match up with scores of another test
what are projective personality tests?
ask person to interpret ambiguous stimuli to project their feelings or thoughts
what is trait theory?
- system of assessing people for differences in how people act consistently in various situations
- aims to reduce trait terms down to most basic personality domains
what are the 3 components of Eysenck’s trait theory?
- extraversion vs. introversion
- neuroticism
- psychoticism
what is the Big Five-Factor Model?
- openess
- conscientiousness
- extraversion
- agreeableness
- neuroticism
what are the 3 personality development theories?
- psychodynamic
- humanistic
- social cognitive
what is the psychodynamic perspective of personality development?
we are not aware of what factors produce our personality and we cannot change or control our personality
who were the psychodynamic theorists?
- Sigmund Freud
- Alfred Adler
- Carl Jung
- Karen Horney
what are the 3 regions of the mind according to Freud?
- conscious mind - conscious awareness
- preconscious mind - contains info accessible to consious mind as needed
- unconscious mind - contain pain/threatening memories and impulses too threatening for conscious awareness
what are the 3 components of the human personality accoring to Freud?
- id
- ego
- superego
what is the id?
- core of personality
- pleasure principle/animalistic drives
what is the ego?
- reality principle
- facilitates compromise between id and superego
what is the superego?
- idealistic principle
- sense of right or wrong based on morality
what is projection?
projecting feelings onto others
what is sublimation?
channeling unacceptable behaviors into socially accepatable behaviors
what are the 5 psychosexual stages?
- oral (birth-1 year)
- anal (1-3 years)
- phallic (3-5 years)
- latent (6-12 years)
- genital (13+ years)
what are the characteristics of the oral stage?
- mouth
- fixation = latent aggressive or passive tendencies
what are the characteristics of the anal stage?
- anus and bladder
- anal retentive: orderly, rigid, obsessive
- anal expulsive: messy, wasteful, destructive
what are the characteristics of the phallic stage?
- genitals
- fixation with opposite sex parent (Oedipus/Electra complex)
what are the characteristics of the latent stage?
- dormant sexual feelings
- fixation = inability to form healthy friendships as an adult
what are the characteristics of the genital stage?
- mature sexual feelings
- fixation = unable to develop meaningful healthy relationships
what is Adler’s Neo-Freudian perspective?
- personality arises from desire to overcome feelings of inadequacy
- operates at conscious level
what is the principle of social interest (Adler)?
considering the needs of others and the betterment of society as the principal goal when developing to our full potential
what is Jung’s analytical perspective?
- more to human motivation than sexual desires
- general life force
- collective unconcious and archetypes
what is the collective unconscious (Jung)?
certain kinds of universal symbols and ideas are present in the unconscious of all people
what are archetypes (Jung)?
cconcepts passed from generation to generation (ex. God, Mother, Earth, etc.)
what is Karen Horney’s feminine view on psychodynamic personality development?
- disagreed with Freud on “penis envy” and female dissatisfaction with their sex
- connection between irrational thoughts about self and psychological problems
what is the humanistic theory of personality development?
- humans are capable of self-awareness, choice, responsibility, and growth
- everyone is unique and whole
- our behaviors are influenced by environment and interpretations of reality
who are the humanistic personality development theorists?
- Carl Rogers
- Abraham Maslow
what is Rogers’ humanistic theory of the self?
- self-concept
- our need for positive regard from others can shift our condition of worth
- incongruence
what is self-concept (Rogers)?
an organized set of perceptions about one’s abilities and characteristics
what are conditions of worth (Rogers)?
focusing worth/identity on what others value (ex. playing soccer even when you want to play piano because your dad likes soccer)
what is incongruence (Rogers)?
discrepancy between the image we hold of ourselves (self-concept) and the sum of all our experiences which can lead to anxiety and psychological problems
what is self-esteem?
overall favorability evaluation of one’s sense of self
what is self-actualization?
tendency to seek self-improvement and personal enhancement
what is conditional positive regard?
acceptance by others only when meeting their expectations
what is unconditional positive regard?
acceptance by others for who they are without passing judgement/placing expectations on them
what is Maslow’s theory of self actualization?
- everyone has need for self-actualization and personality is dependent upon level of hierarchy one has reached
- one can only move up in the needs hierarchy and reach self-actualization if the needs of each level are met
what is the social-cognitive theory of personality development?
- human experience is the primary cause of development
- social = experience
- cognitive = interpretation of experience
who are the social-cognitive personality development theorists?
- Albert Bandura
- Julian Rotter
what are the 3 models of learning?
- classical
- operant
- modeling
what is Rotter’s social learning perspective?
internal and external loci of control
what is an internal locus of control?
- generalized belief that we do have considerable influence over the events in our lives
- better adjusted
what is an external locus of control?
- generalized belief that we do not have considerable influence over the events in our lives
- learned helplessness
what is a self-system (Bandura)?
- set of cognitions used to observe and evaluate external stimuli
- helps regulate behavior in different situations
what is self-efficacy (Bandura)?
- personal beliefs regarding possibility of successfully performing a specific behavior
- confidence
what is Bandura’s theory of self-determinism?
beliefs, behaviors, and the environment interact to shape what’s learned from experience
what is the person-situation debate?
if we have unique, consistent personalities, why can’t we predict behavior?
what is situational consistency?
- people don’t act consistently across all situations but they do act consistently within similar situations
what is self-monitoring?
- high = closely attend to environment and can shift behavior to fit situation
- low = behave consistently across situations and less likely to shift according to situation
what kinds of people are less functionally fertile?
- women with low cooperativeness
- men with low social assertiveness