Exam 3 (Chapters 8-10) Flashcards
Define Conformity
a change in one’s behavior due to the real or imagined influence of
other people
Examples or Conformity
-You’re in the hall, waiting to get into your classroom when you hear the fire
alarm ring. You look around at the other people in the hall. They all start hurrying to the exits, so you do the same.
-You plan to study for your upcoming quiz tonight, but your friends text you to
grab dinner and hang out. You don’t want them to be annoyed at you if decline them again, so you decide to join them.
-You’re taking a quiz when you’re stumped on one question. You could cheat
and peak at your notes, but then you think about how disappointed your parents would be if they knew you cheated, so choose not to.
What are the two types of influence?
-Informational social influence
-Normative social influence
Define Informational Social Influence
-relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behavior
(We conform because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous
situation is more correct than our own and can help us choose an appropriate course of action)
Example of Informational Social Influence
If there is a potential hurricane, we talk to family/friends/others to see
what they plan to do, who is evacuating or not, how they were preparing, etc.
and follow their lead. We also pay attention to the news, meteorologists, and
other experts because we assume they know what they are talking about.
What occurred during Sherif’s experiment?
-Had participants estimate how far a dot of light had moved
-Participants were then placed in a group together and had to state outloud their estimates
-Results:
-Over several trials of voicing their estimates, their estimates converged to a
common estimate
What was the conclusion on Sherif’s experiment?
People used each other as a source of information bc they thought others would know more than them
Define Private acceptance
conforming to other people’s behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
When will people conform?
- When the situation is ambiguous
- When the situation is a crisis
- When there are experts present
What happens when the situation is ambiguous?
When you don’t know what’s going on, it’s natural to look to others for some
guidance
example of when a situation is ambiguous
Take the hurricane example again. We don’t know how dangerous it
will be, where exactly it will make landfall, whether or not we’ll lose
power, etc. Because of all these uncertainties, we tend to seek
information from others to help us decide how to act.
What bout when their is an expert present?
The more expertise or knowledge a person has, the more valuable we
see them as a source of information
Example of when their is an expert present?
When there is a risk of a hurricane, many of us watch/read the news
and listen to meteorologists and emergency response teams. Because
we see them as experts, we assume they know what they are talking
about, and we’re more likely to follow their guidance.
Define social norms
the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors,
values, and beliefs of its members
Define Normative social Influence
-going along with what other people so in order to be liked and
accepted by them
What is an example of Normative social influence?
You don’t want to go to a party, but you do it anyway because you don’t want your friends to be mad at you.
( We publicly conform with the group’s beliefs and behaviors but do not always privately accept them)
Normative social influence results in ______
Public Compliance
Define Public Complance
-conforming to other people’s behavior publicly without necessarily
believing in what they are doing or saying (You don’t necessarily agree with the behavior but you do it anyway)
What occurred in Asch’s line-judgement?
-Put the participant into a
group of 8 (1 participant; 7
confederates)
-Presented the group with a
line and asked them to match
that line to one of three
choices
-There was clearly a correct
answer
- All confederates gave the wrong answer and then the participant would
have to give his choice last
What were the results on Asch’s line-judgement?
◦Many people conformed
even though the group’s answer was clearly wrong
◦76% of the participants
conformed on at least one trial
◦On average, people
conformed on about 1/3 of the time
Why did poeple conform during Asch’s line study?
people conformed because of normative social influence
◦The fear of being the lone dissenter was so strong that people conformed, at
least some of the time ◦People knew they were giving the wrong answer but did it anyway to not go
against the group
What happened in Asch’s line variation study?
-In this study, confederates gave the wrong answer, same as in the
original study
-However, in this variation, Asch had the participant write his answer on
the piece of paper instead of saying it out loud
◦The participant did not have to worry about what the other group members thought of him because they would never find out what his answers were
Results:
◦Conformity dropped considerably
◦Ps conformed only 1.5 times of the 12 trials
Social Impact Theory
conforming to social influence depends on the group’s:
◦Importance
◦Immediacy
◦Number of member
Social Impact Theory (strength/importance)
how important the group is to you
◦The stronger the group (or the more important the group is to you) the
more likely you’ll conform to normative pressures
Example of a strong social impact theory
It makes sense that you’d probably feel more pressure to conform if it’s your family or close
friends (very strong) than a classmate that you don’t know very well (not strong)
Define Idiosyncrasy credits
the tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough
idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution
example of idiosyncrasy
You don’t really like going to the movies. However, your best friends love it, so you usually go with them when they ask you to a movie. Let’s say they want to watch a movie this weekend, and you really don’t want to. So you decline to go and ask if y’all can do something else. Because they know you’re not into movies but go anyway for them, they’re not mad at you this time for going against them.
Social Impact theory (Immediacy)
◦How close the group is physically during the attempt to influence you
◦The more physically close the group, the more likely you’ll conform
Example of immediacy in social impact theory\
◦How close the group is physically during the attempt to influence you
◦The more physically close the group the more likely you’ll conform
Social Impact theory (number)
How many people are in the
group ◦The more people in the
group the more likely
you’ll conform
◦BUT only up to a certain point
◦Optimal group sizes for conformity
is between 3 -5 ◦After 5 people, adding anymore to
the group will not increase the
likelihood of conformity
◦It does not take a large group
to make you conform
When else will people conform?
-When there are no allies in the group
-When the group’s culture is collectivistic
Define injunctive norms
-people’s perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by
others
-What are people supposed to do
Example of injunctive norms
people are supposed to slow down at a yellow light; people are supposed to
recycle
Define descriptive norms
-people’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situation,
regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others ◦What people actually do
Example of descriptive norms
most speed up when they see a yellow light; people throw away a lot of
recyclable items
Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren (1993) study
Three conditions
◦Descriptive norm condition
◦ Confederate walked by the P and dropped an empty fast-food restaurant bag on the ground ◦ By littering, the confederate was subtly communicating that “this is what people do in this situation”
◦Injunctive norm condition
◦ Confederate picked up a littered bag from the ground before passing the P
◦ By picking up someone else’s litter, the confederate was subtly communicating that “littering is wrong” ◦Control condition
◦ Confederate walked by the P and didn’t do anything
In addition, they conducted this study in one of two environments
◦The parking lot was heavily littered
◦ Communicated that “littering is what most people do here”
◦The area was clean and unlittered
◦ Communicated “littering is not what people do here”
Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren (1993) study - Results
Control condition
◦Almost 40% of the participants
threw the flyer on the ground, regardless if the area was littered or clean
Descriptive norm condition
◦Littering was reduced more in the
clean area (11% of participants littered) than in the littered area (30% littered)
Injunctive norm condition
◦Lowest amount of littering
compared to all other conditions ◦About 7% littered in the clean and
4% in the littered area
Define obedience
a change in one’s behavior due to the direct influence of an authority figure
Example of obedience
Listening to your parents, following a teacher’s instructions, completing the work your boss tells you to do
Consequences of obedience
◦People will obey an authority figure to hurt or even kill other human beings
◦Ex: My Lai massacre, Holocaust, genocide
Milgram’s (1963) study:
A participant and confederate were told that the study was investigating
the effects of punishment on learning
accomplice to the researcher.
◦Participant is always the “teacher” ◦Confederate always the “learner”
◦Remember, a confederate is someone who is “in” on the study. They’re an ◦Milgram, as the experimenter, is perceived as the authority figure
Milgram’s (1963) study: Results
Most of Milgram’s participants succumbed to the pressure of the
authority figure (the experimenter)
The average maximum shock administered was 360-volts
62.5% of the participants went all the way to 450-volts ( fully compliant)
80% of the participants continued giving shocks after the learner
complained of his heart condition, which he had mentioned at the
beginning of the experiment
Why did participants obey?
The role of normative social influence
◦If someone really wants us to do something, it can be difficult to say no, especially
when it’s an authority figure ◦You don’t want the person of authority to be disappointed, hurt, or even angry ◦So when an authority figure is so insistent that we obey, saying no can be very
difficult
Variation of Milgram’s study
◦Two confederates working with P
◦ One confederate read the list of word pairs ◦ The other confederate told the learner if he was right or wrong ◦ P was in charge of shocking the learner
◦Results
◦ Only 10% of the participants were fully compliant
Define group
two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
Examples of groups
two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
Why do people join groups?
To help us accomplish things that would be difficult to do on our own
◦Ex: think about your job – it would be impossible to do everything on your
own To fulfill a need of belongingness
◦Have an innate need to belong to groups (feel like we’re part of something To help us define who we are
◦Use other people as important sources of information
◦Groups can impact how we see the world
◦Groups become an important part of our identity
◦Groups help us establish social norms
Define Group Cohesiveness
-qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between
them
◦The more cohesive a group is, the more its members are likely to stay in the group,
take part in group activities, and try to recruit new like-minded members
Group similarity
◦Members tend to be alike in age, sex, beliefs, and opinions
◦This happens because people are attracted to others who are similar to them
Define social norms
acceptable behaviors and beliefs that groups members are supposed to follow
Define social roles
shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
Define Social Facilitation
when people are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated, they tend to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks
Simple vs complex tasks
◦Simple task – something you can easily do
◦Usually something well-learn and maybe even automatic (second nature)
◦Ex: writing your name; riding a bike ◦Complex task – more difficult
◦Usually requires more cognitive energy and might involve something newer or something you don’t have a lot of experience doing
◦Ex: solving a difficult math problem
Define Social Loafing
when people are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, they tend to do worse on simple or unimportant tasks but better on complex tasks
Define Deindividuation
-the loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can’t
be identified (such as when they are in a crowd)
◦Getting lost in the crowd can lead to people engaging in impulsive, deviant,
and sometimes violent acts ◦“Mob mentality” – riots, fights, destruction of property, looting
Why does deindividuation occur?
Makes people feel less accountable
◦Anonymity makes it difficult to tell one person from another
◦Reduces the likelihood that any individual will be singled out and blamed
◦Since you feel like you won’t be held accountable for your actions, you’re
more likely to do something you normally wouldn’t Increases obedience to group norms
◦It’s possible to have group norms that can sometimes conflict with other
group norms or even societal norms in general ◦When faced with conflicting norms, people will usually follow the one that is
most immediate (closest to you at that time) ◦If your group is engaging in deviant behavior (current group norm), it’s easy
to get swept up in that group norm and follow it
What was the Stanford Prison Study
Zimbardo wanted to look at the power of social roles
Social roles
◦Prisoner
◦Guard (Ps were randomly assigned to be a prisoner or a guard)
◦Prison warden (Zimbardo) The two groups were outfitted with different uniforms
◦Prisoners: dressed in loose-fitting smocks with identification numbers on it,
rubber sandals (flip flops), and stocking cap (beanie), and the locked chain attached to one ankle
◦Guards: dressed in khaki shirts and pants, a whistle, a police nightstick, and
big reflective sunglasses that covered half their face
What happened during the Stanford Prison study?
The participants assumed their roles of guards and prisoners very quickly and
to such an extent that continuing the study would have been unethical and immoral
◦Many of the guards became incredibly abusive and cruel
◦Thought of creative ways of verbally harass and humiliate the prisoners
◦The prisoners became passive, helpless, and withdrawn
◦Some became so anxious and depressed that they had to be released from the study earlier than
the others
Define Process Loss?
any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
Define Groupthink
a kind of decision process in which maintaining group cohesiveness
and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic
manner
Avoiding groupthink
-remain partial
-seek outside opinion
-create subgroups
-seek anonymous opinions
Define Group Polarization
the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme
than the initial inclinations of its members
Example group polarization
individuals think that chess players shouldn’t make a risky move unless
there’s at least a 30% chance of success, but when they discuss it with group
members, it drops to just 10% - shows that they moved in a more extreme
direction when in a group
Define Contingency Theory of Leadership
the idea that the effectiveness of a leadership depends both on (1)
how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is and (2) the
amount of control the leader has over the group
Define TASK-ORIENTED LEADER
more concerned with getting the job done than with group members’ feelings and relationships
RELATIONSHIP-ORIENTED LEADER
more concerned with group members’ feelings and relationships
High-control
leader has excellent relationships with group members, his/her position as
leader is clearly perceived as powerful, and the work needing to be done by the group is structured and well-defined
Low-Control
the leader has poor relationships with group members, and the work needing to be done is not clearly well-defined
CAUSES OF ATTRACTION
Propinquity
Similarity
Reciprocal liking
Physical attractiveness
Define the PROPINQUITY EFFECT
the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to
become our friends
Define Mere Exposure
the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more likely we are to like
it
Define Similarity
a match between you and another person
Define reciprocal liking
People who like each other get to know each other better and become more
familiar with each other
Define Attractiveness
Attractive people seem more familiar to us, and we like them more
Define Companionate love
DEF: the intimacy and affection we have for someone that are not
accompanied by passion or physiological arousal
Example of Companionate Love
close friendships, family relationships
Define Passionate Love
an intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal
Example of passionate love
Romantic relationships
Define Ster berg’s Theory of love
the idea that different kinds of love consist of varying degrees of three components (intimacy, passion, commitment)
Intimacy
Feelings of being close to and bonded with a partner
Passion
-The arousal you experience toward your partner
-Includes sexual attraction
Commitment
-Short-term: that you love your partner
-Long-term: to maintain that love and stay with your partner
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY (SHORT-TERM)
the idea that people’s feelings about a relationship
depend on
(a) their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the
relationship
(b) the kind of relationship they deserve, and
(c) their chances for having a better relationship with someone else
Rewards
Anything positive that you get out of being in that relationship
Example of rewards
validation, companionship, support, entertainment, gaining access to money, status, activities, and other interesting people
Costs
Anything negative that you have to deal with in that relationship
Examples of cost
putting up with annoying habits and characteristics of the other person, stress (from fights or
disagreements)
Define comparison level
people’s expectations about the level of rewards and costs they are likely to receive in a particular relationship
Comparison levels
High comparison level (high expectations)
Expect a lot of rewards and few costs
If a relationship doesn’t match this comparison level, you will be unhappy and unsatisfied
Low comparison level (low expectations)
Expect a lot of costs and few rewards
You would be happy in an okay relationship because you expect relationships to be difficult and
long-term relationships, you have to consider a person’s level of investment in the relationship
anything you put in to a relationship that you will lose if you leave the
relationship
investments
Tangible things – financial resources and possessions (i.e., house)
Intangible things – emotional energy and time spent building the relationshi
INVESTMENT THEORY (LONG-TERM SOCIAL EXCHANGE)
the theory that people’s commitment to a relationship
depends not only on their satisfaction with the relationship but
also on how much they have invested in the relationship that
would be lost by ending it
Define Equity Theory
the idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced and the contributions made by both parties are roughly equal
Equitable relationships
Partners are pretty much equal in the rewards/costs they experience and the
amount of time/effort they are putting into the relationship
Doesn’t matter if rewards are higher or costs are higher – just needs to be
similar
Most stable relationships
Inequitable relationships
Under-benefitted
One partner gets few rewards, incurs more costs, and has to devote more time/energy to the
relationship Least satisfying relationship
Over-benefitted
The other partner gets lots of rewards, incurs few costs, and devotes little time/energy to the
relationship
Less satisfying relationship, but not as bad as under-benefitted
EXCHANGE RELATIONSHIPS
relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e., for an equal ratio of rewards and costs)
COMMUNAL RELATIONSHIPS
relationships in which people’s primary concern is being responsive to the other person’s needs
Destructive behaviors – harm the relationship
Actively harming the relationship (e.g., abusing the partner, threatening to
break up, actually leaving)
Passively allowing the relationship to deteriorate (e.g., refusing to deal with
problems, ignoring the problem, spending less time together, putting no
energy into the relationship)
Constructive behaviors – help the relationship
Actively trying to improve the relationship (e.g., discussing problems, trying
to change, going to a therapist)
Define fatal attractions
the very qualities that were so initially so attractive became the very
reason as to why the relationship ended
Examples of Fatal Attraction
Ex: at first – “she’s so exciting and predictable;” and then – “I can never
count on her”
Ex: a woman attracted to an older man because he’s mature but then breaks
up with him because he’s so much older and they have nothing in common
Breakees
-Were miserable
Reported high levels of loneliness, depression, unhappiness, and anger
Almost all reported experiencing physical disorders (i.e., headaches,
stomachaches, eating and sleeping irregularities) in the weeks after the breakup as well
Breakers
Were the least upset
Reported the lowest levels of pain and stress
39% reported the fewest physical symptoms
However, breakers did report feeling guilty and unhappy
Mutuals
Were not as upset and hurt as breakees but were not as unaffected as
breakers
60% of mutuals reported physical symptoms
REMAINING FRIENDS AFTER A BREAK-UP
Couples with higher rates of satisfaction and investment during the course of
the relationship are more likely to remain friends after a break-up
