Exam 3 - Chapter 9 - 13 Flashcards
(584 cards)
1
Q
Prejudice
A
A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members.
2
Q
Stereotypes
A
A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information (and sometimes accurate).
3
Q
Racism
A
(1) An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race
(2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race.
4
Q
Sexism
A
(1) An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex
(2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.
5
Q
Discrimination
A
Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members.
6
Q
ABCs of attitudes:
A
- A - Affect (feelings)
- B - Behavior tendency (inclination to act)
- C - Cognition (beliefs)
7
Q
Problem with stereotypes come when
A
overgeneralized or plain wrong
8
Q
Difference between prejudice and discrimination
A
Prejudice is a negative attitude
discrimination is negative behavior
9
Q
Racism and sexism are
A
institutional practices that discriminate even when no prejudicial intent
10
Q
Prejudiced attitudes don’t have to breed
A
hostile acts
11
Q
Prejudice illustrates
A
our dual attitude system
12
Q
Implicit biases modestly predict behaviors
A
from the act of friendlessness to work evaluations
13
Q
Prejudiced and stereotypic evaluations can occur
A
outside of one’s awareness
14
Q
Molecular biologists see skin color as
A
trivial human characteristic controlled by minuscule genetic difference
15
Q
Is Racial Prejudice Disappearing?
A
no
16
Q
Explicit prejudicial attitudes can
A
change quickly
17
Q
Progress toward racial equality in blacks and whites
A
- Blacks - Compare world to fair world = no progress
- Whites - Compare world to past world = progress
18
Q
Since 1975, Canadian opposition to immigration has fluctuated with the country’s unemployment rate. This opposition exemplifies
A
realistic group conflict theory
19
Q
What is infrahumanization?
A
the process of attributing non-human qualities to outgroups
20
Q
Carl is always yelling at his children. When his wife asks him about this behavior, he tells her the most important thing children can learn is respect for authority. He loves their kids and wants them to learn this lesson early. How can we best characterize Carl’s personality?
A
authoritarian
21
Q
Indeed, people high in ______ often avoid jobs such as social work, that, by virtue of their aid to disadvantaged groups, undermine hierarchies.
A
SOCIAL DOMINANCE
22
Q
Beliefs are to _______ as attitudes are to ______
A
Beliefs are to stereotypes as attitudes are to prejudices
23
Q
Subtle prejudice is also called
A
“modern racism” or “cultural racism”
24
Q
Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior surface when
A
people can hide behind the screen of others motives
25
**Unconscious associations** may only **indicate cultural assumptions**
perhaps without prejudice
26
Those who **display implicit prejudice on the IAT**
more **likely to favor treatment of whites**
27
Implicit **prejudice and behavior**
can **leak into behavior**
28
*Joshua and Anthony Greenwald* on **implicit attitudes and behaviors**
**More people shoot black people mistakenly** more than whites
29
When **primed with a black** rather than white face **people think**
guns
30
**When** people are **fatigued or feel threatened**
**more** likely to mistakenly **shoot a minority person**
- **Amygdala** facilities **automatic responding**
31
**Findings** on **stereotype studies**
* Strong **gender stereotypes exist**
* **Members of the stereotypes group** accept stereotypes
32
Stereotypes vs. prejudices
**Stereotypes are not prejudices**
- Stereotypes may support prejudice
33
**Attitudes toward women** changed
**rapidly** as racial attitudes
34
**Women vs. other groups** on **behavior**.
* People **don’t** **respond** to women **with gut-level negative emotions as they do minorities**
* People **like women more than men**
* Women are **more understanding, kind, and helpful**
35
**Downsides** of **being men**
1. More likely to **commit suicide**
2. More likely to be **murdered**
3. Majority of **battlefield and death row casualties**
4. **Die 5 years sooner**
5. More **intellectual disability**
36
The **upside** of **being men**
**Women** saw **greater value In men work**
37
**Gender discrimination less subtle** in
non-western world
38
People **prefer having babies of which gender**
**boys**
More orphanages have girl children
39
**Female shortage in children contribute** to
* Increase
1. violence
2. Crime
3. Prostitution
4. Trafficking of women
40
**Parents** **gender type of children**
* Want **boys** to be **smart**
* Want **girls** to be **beautiful and spend**
41
**Heterosexual men** who **value masculinity**
**express** most **prejudice against transgender** individuals
42
In the **west gay people face**
* Job **discrimination**
* Gay **marriage support is mixed** but increasing
* **Harassment**
* **Rejection**
43
What **predicts LGBT health**
* State policies
* Community attitudes
* Gay stigma
44
Social dominance orientation
A **motivation** to have **one’s group dominate other social groups.**
45
Ethnocentric
Believing in the **superiority of one’s own ethnic and cultural group**, and having a corresponding **disdain for all other groups.**
46
Authoritarian personality
A personality that is **disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance** of outgroups and those lower in status.
47
**Unequal status breeds**
prejudice
48
**Powerful men** who **stereotyped female subordinate gave**
**praise but fewer resources**
- which undermined performance and allowed men to maintain their power
49
*Peter Glick* and *Susan Fiske* **ways we see others**
* Competent
* Likable
50
Those **high in social dominance orientation**
the people in **terms of hierarchies** and **support policies** that **maintain hierarchies**
51
**Prejudice springs** from
**equal status** and **acquired values** and **attitudes**
52
**Tendencies** of **ethnocentric people**
1. **Intolerance for weakness**
2. **Punitive attitude**
3. **Submissive respect** for their group's authorities
53
If a **person is sexist** it is safe to **assume** they **may also be**
racist
54
**Authoritarian** people **as children**
faced **harsh discipline**
55
The **insecurity of authoritarian individuals** predisposes them to
excessive concern with
* **Power**
* **Status**
* **Inflexible right-wrong way** of thinking
56
In most countries, **leaders invoke religion to**
justify present order
57
Use of **religion to support injustice explained**
* **White church members** have expressed **more racial prejudice than nonmembers**
* Those **professing fundamentalist beliefs** have expressed more **prejudice than non-professing progressive police**
58
**Correlation** between **religion and prejudice**
1. May no **causal connection**
2. **Prejudice** causes **religion**
3. **Religion** causes **prejudice**
59
The argument for **why religion doesn’t cause prejudice**
1. **Faithful attenders** are less prejudiced
2. **Intrinsically religious** are less prejudiced
3. **Clergy** are less prejudiced
60
Once **established prejudice is maintained by**
inertia - **tendency to do nothing**
61
Those who **conformed most** to **other social norms**
were **most prejudiced**
62
**Hate speech** can be
**socially toxic**
- frequent hate speech leads to desensitization
63
**Presidents** have the **power to**
influence norms
64
If **prejudice** **isn’t** deeply **ingrained in the personality then**
then change and **new norms evolve** and **prejudice can diminish**
65
**Social institutions** can **bolster prejudice by**
1. overt policies
2. passively reinforcing the status quo
66
**Institutional support for prejudice** is often
**unintended** and **unnoticed**
67
Frustration feeds
**hostility**
- when the cause of frustration is unknown we redirect hostility
68
**Displaced aggression contributed** to
**lynching of black** in south after civil war
69
When **living standards high**
societies **more open to diversity**
70
What **fuels prejudice**
* **Passion**
* **Competition** - group conflict theory
71
Group conflict theory
The theory that **prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources.**
72
Social identity
**The “we” aspect of our self-concept**; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.
73
In-group Bias
The **tendency to favor one’s own group.**
74
**Self-concept made up** of
**personal identity** and **social identity**
75
*Tajfel and Turner* **soil identify theory**
* We put **people into categories**
* We **associate ourselves with certain groups** - build self-esteem
* We **contrast our groups with other groups**
76
When one's **personal and social identity become fused**
**more willing to fight or die** **for** their **group**
77
The simple experience of **being formed into groups promote**
in group bias
78
**Pros** of **in-group bias**
* Improves a positive self-concept
* Feeds favoritism
79
More **prominent** to **in-group bias when the group is**
**small and differs in status** relative to out-group
80
**Out-group stereotypes prosper when**
people feel their **in-group identity most keenly**
81
**In-group Bias and discrimination result less** from
**outgroup hostility** than from in-group favoritism
82
To **perceive ourselves as having status**
need people below us
83
If the **status is secure**
we have **less need to feel superior** and **express less prejudice**
84
**Thinking about death** can
1. **Provoke insecurity** to intensify in-group favoritism and outgroup prejudice
2. **Heighten communal feeling**
3. **Affect support for important public policies**
85
The **connection** between **self-image and prejudice**
1. **Affirm people** and they will **evaluate an outgroup more positively**
2. **Threaten self-esteem** and they will **restore it by denigrating an out-group**
86
When the **need to belong is met**
people **more accepting of out-group**
87
**Motivation** to **lead people to**
be **prejudice** and **avoid prejudice**
88
People **low and high in prejudice**
**have similar automatic prejudicial responses**
- unwanted thoughts and feelings often persist
89
**Motivation to avoid prejudice** can
lead people to **modify thoughts and actions**
90
Out-group homogeneity effect
**Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another** than are ingroup members. Thus “they are alike; we are diverse.”
91
**The way** we **simplify our environment**
to **categorize its**
92
**Judging** people **in outer and inner groups**
judge people in outer groups quickly **take longer to form impression for those in inner groups**
93
Own-age bias
**the tendency for both children and adults to more accurately identify faces** from their own age group
94
We often **rely on stereotypes when**
1. Pressed for **time**
2. **Preoccupied**
3. **Tired**
4. **Emotionally** aroused
95
Two **powerful ways of categorizing people**
**ethnicity** and **sex**
96
Categorizing **someone by race**
**not prejudice** but a **foundation for prejudice**
97
When we **assign people to groups** we are likely to
**exaggerate similarities within the groups** and **differences between two groups**
98
Greater **familiarity with a social group**
more we **see its diversity**
99
When **looking at a face from another racial group**
**attend to group** (black) rather than individuals features first
100
When **someone in a group is made conspicuous**
we see that **person is causing whatever happens**
101
Distinctiveness can feed
self-consciousness
102
Fundamental attribution error
we **attribute others behavior** so much **to their inner dispositions** that we **discount important situational forces**
103
Group-serving bias
**Explaining away outgroup members’ positive behaviors**; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one’s own group).
104
Just-world Phenomenon
The tendency of **people to believe** that the **world is just** and that people, therefore, **get what they deserve** and deserve what they get.
105
Sub-typing
Accommodating individuals who deviate from **one’s stereotype by thinking of them as “exceptions to the rule.”**
106
Stereotype threat
A **disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype**. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one’s reputation into one’s self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.
107
Given a **limited experience** **with** a **particular social group**
we **recall examples of it and generalize from those**
108
**Cons** of **generalizing** from a **single experience about the whole group**
Seldom represents larger group
109
**Those more distinctive** may
**overestimated** by majority
110
Vivid cases distort
**judgments** and **create stereotypes**
111
**Stereotypes** assume a **correlation between**
**group members** and **individuals presumed characteristics**
112
Features that **most distinguish a minority from a majority**
are those that **become associated with minority**
113
**Fundamental attribution error** and **in and outer groups**
* Outer group =
* Negative behavior - it’s a **person not situation**
* Positive behavior - often **dismissed**
* * In-group =
* Negative behavior - it's the **situation**
114
**Disadvantage** groups and **groups that stress modesty**
**exhibit less group serving** bias
115
**Blaming occurs when** people
**attribute** an outgroup's **failure to its members’ flawed disposition**
116
Merely **observing another innocent person being victimized is**
**enough to make the victim seem less worthy**
- stems from the need to believe we like in just world
117
**Just-world phenomenon colors**
our **impression of rape victims**
118
**Those** who **assume a just world believe**
1. **Rape victims** must have **behaved seductively**
2. Battered spouses must have **provided their beatings**
3. **Poor** people **don’t deserve better**
4. **Sick** people are **responsible for their illnesses**
5. **Teens** who are **bullied online deserve it**
6. **Successful** people **deserve what they have**
119
**Just-world assumption leads** to
1. Discounting uncontrollable **factors that can derail good effort of talented people**
2. Justify their **culture’s familiar social systems**
120
Prejudgments guide
our **attention and memories**
121
After we **judge an item as belonging to a category**
our **memory** for it **later shifts toward the features we associate with that category**
122
Prejudgments are
self-perpetuating
123
When **information doesn’t fit a stereotype**
1. We often **say it was special to the situation**
2. If strikingly inconsistent - we **notice but less impact**
124
**High-prejudice people tend** to **subtype**
**positive** outgroup members
125
**Low-prejudice people** tend to
**subtype negative** outgroup members
126
Different **way to accommodate inconsistent information is**
form **new stereotypes for those who don’t fit**
127
If **victimization takes a toll**
people can **use the results to justify discrimination**
128
Prejudice effects who
its targets
129
Stereotype threat
A **disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.** Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one’s reputation into one’s self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.
130
Being **sensitive to prejudice**
makes us **self-conscious when living as numerical minors**
131
**Stereotype threat** can **hamper**
the **persons performance**
132
Students who are allowed to **think** they have **benefited from gender or race-based preferences** on **getting to college**
tend to **under perform those who are led to feel content**
133
What **helps combat stereotype threat**
**values affirmation**
- getting people to affirm who they are
134
**How** does **stereotype treatment undermine performance?**
1. Builds stress
2. Self-monitoring
3. Suppressing unwanted thoughts and emotions
135
**Negative** and **positive stereotypes** and **performance**
**negative stereotypes disrupt performance**
positive stereotypes facilitate performance
136
Do **Stereotypes Bias Judgments of Individuals?**
yes
137
**stereotypes** mostly **reflect**
reality
138
People often **evaluate individuals** more
**positively than the individual groups**
139
When do most believe stereotypes and ignore them
people often **believe stereotypes yet ignore them** **when** **giving personalize anecdotal information**
140
**Wrong stereotypes color**
our j**udgment of individuals**
141
**Stereotypes** can **bias our**
**interpretations** and **memories of people**
142
When **stereotypes are strong and information about someone ambiguous**
stereotypes can **subtly bias our judgement of individuals**
143
We **evaluate people more extremely when**
**behavior violates** our **stereotype**
144
Aggression
**Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone**. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another’s feelings.
145
Physical Aggression
**Hurting** someone else’s **body**.
146
Social Aggression
**Hurting someone else’s feelings or threatening their relationships.** Sometimes called relational aggression, it includes cyberbullying and some forms of in-person bullying.
147
Hostile Aggression
**Aggression that springs from anger**; its goal is to injure.
148
Instinctive
An innate, **unlearned behavior** pattern is **exhibited by** all **members of a species.**
149
Instrumental Aggression
**Aggression that aims to injure**, but only as a means to some other end.
150
“Selfish gene” theory
**evolutionary psychologist theory of the relationship between genetic relatedness and aggression**. This explains why men are more likely to harm stepchildren than genetic children
151
Frustration-aggression theory
The **theory** is **that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress.**
152
Frustration
The **blocking of goal-directed behavior.**
153
Displacement
The **redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration**. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target.
154
Relative deprivation
The **perception** that **one is less well off than others** with whom one compares oneself.
155
Social Learning Theory
The theory is that **we learn social behavior by observing and imitating** and by being rewarded and punished.
156
Rape myth
some **women would welcome sexual assault** and that “no doesn’t mean no”
157
Prosocial behavior
**Positive, constructive, helpful social behavior**; the opposite of antisocial behavior.
158
Social Scripts
Culturally provided mental instructions for **how to act in various situations.**
159
Hydraulic model
implies **accumulated aggressive energy needs a release**. Emotional and physical
160
Scapegoat theory
If **we are prevented from reaching a goal**, oftentimes we **become hostile**, and if we **cannot pinpoint the source**, we often **display displaced aggression**.
161
Two **categories of Aggression**
1. **Physical** aggression
2. **Social** aggression
162
*Dan Owlets* and *Kyrre Breivik* **consequences of bullying**
“the opposite of well-being”
163
What **isn’t included** in **social psychology definition of aggression**
micro aggressions
164
What is **mostly instrumental aggression**
* Terrorism
* War
165
What is **mostly hostile aggression**
murders
166
*Sigmund Freud* on **aggression formation**
from a **self-destructive impulse redirected towards others**
167
*Konrad Lorenz* on **aggression formation**
**adaptive** rather than self-destructive
168
**Critiques** of the idea that **aggression is instinctive**
1. **Fails** to **account for variations in aggression**
2. **Not** **all** human **behaviors** are **instinctive**
169
**The reasoning** for the idea that **aggression is instinctive**
**aggression sometimes rooted in basic evolutionary impulses**
- especially in men
170
**Male related aggression occurs** when
males **competing** with other males
## Footnote
When social status is challenged - especially in face-to-to confrontations
171
**Brain** biology of **more aggressive people**
* **Smaller amygdala’s**
* **Prefrontal cortex less active** in murderers and antisocial men
172
People with **mental illnesses more likely** to be
**victims** **of violence** than perpetrators
173
Heredity influences
the **neural system’s sensitivity to aggressive cues**
174
**Gene** linked to **aggression**
**MAOA-L “warrior gene”**
- nature and nurture still interact
175
**Alcohol** unlocks **aggression when**
**people are provoked**
- by reducing people’s self-awareness
176
**Human aggressiveness** and **testosterone**
**correlates** with each other
177
To **lower aggression eat a diet high in**
* Omega-3 fatty acid
* Low in trans fat
* Without sweetened drinks
178
**Relationship** between **biology and behavior**
bidirectional
179
Fans of ____ **team commit more postgame assaults**
winning rather than losing
180
What influences **predispose people to react aggressively** to conflict and provocation
1. Neural
2. Genetic
3. Biochemical
181
**Frustration grows** once
1. **Motivation to achieve** very strong
2. We **expected gratification**
3. The **blocking is complete**
182
**Cyberbullying** often **rooted in**
frustration
183
When **others might disapprove or punish we**
**redirect hostilities** to say for target
-Explains why someone already angry will lash out more readily later
184
Who **especially vulnerable to displaced anger**
our group target
185
**Results** of lab test of **frustration-aggression theory**
**Sometimes frustration increased aggressiveness**
- sometimes lead to irritation
186
**A revised** version of **Frustration-aggression theory**
**frustration produces aggression** only **when** people become **upset**
187
**Frustrated people** are likely to **lash out when**
**aggression cues pull the cork** releasing bottled up anger
188
**Frustration** arises **from** the **gap between**
**expectations** and **attainments**
189
Relative deprivation explains
why **happiness is lower** and **crime rates higher** in countries with more income inequality
190
One **source of frustration today**
**affluence** depicted in TV
191
**Rewards** of **aggression**
1. Can **feel satisfying**
2. Instrument in **achieving certain rewards**
192
*Albert Bandura* **aggression formation**
**social learning theory**
- watching people’s behavior and learning from their consequences
193
Observing aggressive behavior
**lowered inhibitions** and **taught ways to agrees**
194
**institutions** that **decreased US aggressive acts**
* Economic trade
* Education
* Government policing and justice
195
**The US** has seen **declines in aggression and violent acts** such as
* Lynchings
* rape
* corporal punishment
* anti-gay attitudes and intimidations
196
People **sensitive to disgust**
less aggressive
197
**Aggressive behavior spreads** in **social groups through**
modeling
198
**Physically aggressive children** tend to **have** **had**
**physically punitive** parents
199
In **communities** were **“macho” images admired**
**aggression** readily transmitted **to new generations**
200
Men from **where** more **likely to bagel aggressively**
1. **Non-democratic** areas
2. High in **income inequality**
3. Focus on **teaching meant to be warriors**
4. Gone to **war**
201
American **cities** populated by **southerners have higher**
average **White homicide rates**
202
People **learn aggressive responses by**
**experience** and **observing aggression** models
203
Pain heightens
aggressiveness
204
Temporary **climate variations can affect**
behavior
205
**Offensive odor's linked** with
aggressive behavior
206
**Heat** and **aggression**
**heat** may **frustrate people** but not lead to aggressive tendencies directly
207
Intentional attacks breed
**retaliatory attacks**
## Footnote
- Being intact or insulted breeds aggression
208
A **state of arousal** can be **interpreted** in
**different ways** depending on the contacts
209
What **intensifies any emotion**
**being physically stirred up**
- arousal fuels emotions
210
**Arousal** can **amplify**
another form of **arousal**
211
**Violence** is **more likely when**
**aggressive cues release pent up anger**
- The sight of weapon is a qua
212
**Risk** of **guns at home**
a gun in the house is **12 times more likely to kill household member** than an intruder
213
**Gun serves** as
1. aggressive cues
2. psychological distance between aggressor and victim
214
Viewing **fictional scenes of men overpowering** and **arousing women can**
* Distort **men’s perceptions of how women actually respond to sexual coercion**
* **Increase men’s aggression** against women
215
Those who **view sexual violence**
**more likely to believe the rape myth**
- expose to porn
216
**Exposure** to **erotic films**
1. **Decrease attraction** to one’s partner
2. **Increase** acceptance of **extramarital sex**
3. **Increase** men’s perceiving **women in sexual terms**
4. **Increase physical force,** verbal coercion ,and harassment
217
**Who** reports **using porn** at unusually **high rates**
* Rapists
* Serial killers
* Child molesters
218
Exposure to **violent porn increases**
**punitive behavior** towards women
219
average **US house TV usage**
**7 hours** a day
220
Heavy **viewing** of **aggressive TV**
more **aggressive**
221
Those **who watch more violence in childhood**
more **likely to have been convicted of a crime**
222
**8**-year-olds **violence viewing predicted**
**spouse abuse** as adult
223
**Adolescent’s violence viewing** predicted
engaging in **assault and robbery**
224
Elementary **school children's violent media exposure** predicted
how **often** do they get into **fights 2 - 6 months later**
225
**Media viewing Experiments** confirm
viewing **violence amplifies aggression**
226
**Viewing violence increase violence for** those
1. with **aggressive tendencies**
2. when an **attractive person commits justified realistic violence** that goes unpunished
227
Why does **media viewing affect behavior**
1. Arousal it produces
2. Disinhibits
3. Evokes imitation
228
**Media violence exposure decreased** feeling of
**empathy** for other
229
We **rely on social scripts when**
we are **new situations and don’t know how to act**
230
The **more sexual content adolescents view**
**more** likely they are
1. to **perceive peers as sexually active**
2. Develop **sexually permissive attitudes**
3. Experience **early intercourse**
231
Those who **watch much TV see the world as**
scary place
232
Watching **violent TV primes**
**aggression-related** ideas
233
Who **plays violent video games**
Older and younger **children**
234
**Concerns** of **video games heighten after**
**teen assassins** in serval mass shooting
235
**Reasons** why **violent games have more toxic effect** than watching TV
players
1. **Identify** with a **violent character**
2. **Actively rehearse violence**
3. **Engage** in a **whole sequence of enacting violence**
4. **Engaged with continual violence**
5. **Repeat violent behaviors**
6. **Rewarded** for **violent acts**
236
Playing **violent video games**
increase **aggressive behavior and thoughts**
237
**Effects** of **playing video games**
1. **Increase** in **aggressive behavior**
2. **Increase** in **aggressive thoughts**
3. **Increase** in **aggressive feelings**
4. **Habituation in** the **brain**
5. Greater **likelihood of carrying a weapon**
6. **Decreases** in **self-control** and increase in antisocial behavior
7. **Decrease** in **helping others** and in empathy for others
8. **Less** time on **schoolwork**
238
**After violent video games people more** likely to
**exploit** than to trust
239
**Pros** of **video games**
1. **Improve hand-eye coordination**, reaction time, spatial ability and selective attention
2. **Fulfill a need for competence,** control and social connection
240
Those who **play prosocial video games**
1. helped others
2. shared
3. correlated more
241
**Parents** and **video games**
encourage parents to **discover what kids are ingesting to ensure healthy media diet**
242
Groups can **amplify aggressive reactions by**
diffusing responsibility
243
**Diffusion of responsibility increases** with
**distance** and **numbers**
244
As **group identify develops**
**conformity** and **deindividuation increases**
245
Increased **aggression predicted by**
1. Being **male**
2. **Aggressive** or anger-prone personalities
3. **Alcohol** use
4. **Violence viewing**
5. **Anonymity**
6. **Provocation**
7. **Presence of weapon**
8. **Group interaction**
246
**Hydraulic model example**
people **paying to go to smash rooms**
247
*Catharsis* **credited** to
Artistotle
248
If **lead to believe that catharsis effectively vents emotions**
people **react more aggressively to insult as a way to prove mood**
249
**Psychologists** view on **catharsis**
therapeutic
250
An effective **way** to **reduce aggression**
**doing nothing** more than hitting a bag
251
Cruel act breed
cruel attitudes
252
Retaliation reduces
**tension** and **provides pleasure**
253
**Should** people **bottle up anger and aggressive urges**?
**no**
- People can be assertive without aggressive
254
**If aggression behavior is learned** then
hope for **controlling it**
255
Aversive experiences predispose
hostile agression
256
Anticipated rewards and costs influence
instrumental aggression
257
Threaten punishment can
deter aggression only under ideal conditions
258
Limits to effective punishments
**Mortal aggression** = severely punish afterward
259
Prevent aggression
**before it happens**
-Model and reward sensitivity and cooperation from an early age
260
Ostracism
**Acts of excluding or ignoring**. Counteracts need to belong
261
Proximity
**Geographical nearness**. Proximity (more precisely, “functional distance”) powerfully predicts liking.
262
Functional distance
How **often people’s paths cross**
263
Mere exposure
The tendency for novel stimuli to **be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.**
264
When **humans belong** we **tend to be**
1. **Healthier**
2. **Happier**
3. **A deep sense of well-being** = paired with autonomy & competence
265
Bullying vs. Ostracized
**Ostracized worse** because doesn’t acknowledge your existence
266
People who are **socially rejected by those close to them**
**engage** in **self-defeating behaviors**
267
**Ostracized** people **brain function**
1. **Deficits** in **brain mechanisms that inhibit unwanted behavior**
2. **Heightened activity in brain cortex** that activates in response to physical pain
268
**Ostracism effect** of a person
* Increases aggression
* Depressed heart rate
269
What can **reduce hurt feelings**
1. **Tylenol**
2. sending **light electrical current to** brain region related to **rejection**
270
Feeling love activates
brain reward systems
271
**Proximity** can **breed**
* Friendships
* Hostility
* Liking
272
Interaction or **functional distance allows people to**
explore **similarities**
273
**Why** does **proximity breed liking?**
1. **availability** of that person
2. Enables people to **discover commonalities and exchange rewards**
3. The **anticipation of interaction boosts liking**
274
**Too much exposure** - if receptions are incessant - liking
eventually drops
275
Mere exposure breeds
1. More **positive attitudes of social groups**
2. **Pleasant feeling**
276
**Mere exposure** has a **stronger effect when**
people **receive stimuli without awareness**
277
Emotions vs thinking speed
**Emotions** are often **more instantaneous than thinking**
278
The **negative** side **to mere exposure effect**
wariness of unfamiliar
279
A good **predictor** of how **frequently humans date**
their **attractiveness**
280
In **dating for men** what is **important**
attractiveness
281
In **dating** for **women** what is **important**
* Honesty
* Humor
* Kindness
* dependability
282
**Attractive wives led** to
happier husbands
283
When it comes to **short interactions attractiveness is important to**
**men and women**
- speed dating
284
People tend to **select people to be close with based on**
1. How similar they are in
2. Popularity
3. Self-worth
4. Attractiveness
5. Intelligence
285
Matching Phenomenon
The tendency for men and women to **choose as partners those who are a “good match” in attractiveness and other traits.**
286
Physical-attractiveness stereotype
The presumption that **physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well**: What is beautiful is good.
287
When **couples** are **similar in attractiveness**
relationship grows
288
**A less-attractive person** in a relationship often **has**
compensating qualities
289
Does the **attractiveness effect spring entirely from sexual attractiveness**?
No
290
Seeing **photos of facially disfigured people judged them as**
1. Less **intelligent**
2. Less **emotional stable**
3. Less **trustworthy**
291
Humans believe **beautiful people are**
1. more **Happier**
2. more **Sexually warmer**
3. more **Outgoing**
4. more **Intelligent**
5. more **Successful**
6. **Less honest**
292
Women who have **had cosmetic work done were perceived as more**
1. Kinder
2. Sensitive
3. Sexually warm
4. Responsive
5. Likable
293
Most affects first impressions
attractiveness
294
**Attractiveness** better **predicts** **what** in **urban settings**
**happiness** and **social connections**
295
**Attractive children** and young adults are **somewhat more**
* Relaxed
* Outgoing
* Socially polished
* More popular
* More gender-typed
296
Attractiveness
whatever **people of any given place and time find attractive/**
297
For cultures with **scarce resources what is attractive**
plumpness
298
For cultures with **abundant resources what is attractive**
**slimness**
299
**Attractiveness influences** life **outcomes less in cultures** where
**relationships** are based more **on kinship or social arrangement**
300
**To be really attractive** is to be
1. perfectly average
2. Symmetrical
301
Beauty signals **biologically important information**
302
Women **emphasis** on **men’s physical attractiveness depends on goals**
* **Short**-term relationship = **Prefer more symmetrical men**
* **Long**-term relationship = **attractiveness less important**
303
Men everywhere are **most attracted to women whose**
**waists are 30% narrower than hip**
- sign of peak sexual fertility
304
Circumstances that **reduce a woman's fertility and change shape**
1. Malnutrition
2. pregnancy
3. menopause
305
**Men** who find **beauty standards on magazines** find average **women**
less attractive
306
Complementarity
The **popularly supposed tendency**, in a relationship between two people, for each to **complete what is missing in the other.**
307
Being **sexually aroused temporality** makes a **person of the other sex seem**
more attractive
308
After viewing a v**ery attractive person of same-gender people rate themselves**
less attractive
309
We **perceive likable people as**
attractive
310
The **more in love a woman is with a man**
the **more physically attractive she finds him**
311
The greater **similarity between a couple**
**happier** they are and **less** likely to **divorce**
312
The more **similar someone’s attitudes are** to your own
the **more you will like the person**
313
We t**end to see those we like as**
being like us
314
Dissimilar attitudes
depress linking more than similar attitudes improve it
315
Whenever one group regards another as “other”
potential for conflict is high
316
**“Cultural racism” persists** because
cultural differences are a **fact of life**
317
We are **physically attracted to people whose scent suggests**
**dissimilar enough genes** to prevent inbreeding
318
We **like people similar to us in**
1. Popularity
2. Aggressiveness
3. Academic performance
4. Attitudes
5. Needs
6. Personalities
319
Influence our **initial attraction to someone**
proximity + attractiveness
320
Ingratiation
The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which **people seek to gain another’s favor.**
321
Reward theory of attraction
The theory is that **we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us** or whom we associate with rewarding events.
322
Passionate love
A **state of intense longing for union with another**. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner’s love, and are disconsolate on losing it.
323
Influences longer-term attraction
similarity
324
We tend to like people who
1. are like us
2. Rewarding to be with
3. Associate with a good feeling
325
If **praise violates what we know**
we may **lose respect for flatterer** and **wonder** if compliment springs **ulterior motives**
326
We perceive criticism to be
more sincere than praise
327
Constant approval can
lose value
328
If a **relationship gives more reward than the cost**
we will **like it more and want it to continue**
329
If a **relationship** is going to **survive** it is **important to associate the relationship with**
good things
330
**Reward theory of attraction explains** why
1. **Proximity** is **rewarding**
2. We **like attractive people** because we **perceive that they offer desirable traits**
3. If others have **similar opinions we feel rewarded** because we **think they like us in return**
4. **We like those who like us**
331
*Robert Sternberg* **view on love**
triangle consisting of
1. **passion**
2. **intimacy**
3. **commitment**
332
Common **elements of love in loving relationships**
1. Mutual understanding
2. Giving and receiving support
3. Enjoying loved one’s company
333
When **experiencing passionate love we express it**
**physically** and want it to be **exclusive**
334
Two-factor theory of emotion
Arousal × its label = emotion.
335
Companionate love
The **affection** we feel for **those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined**.
336
Secure attachment
**Attachments** are **rooted in trust** and **marked by intimacy**.
337
*Elaine Hatfield* on **passionate love**
a state of **intense longing for union with another**
338
**Passionate love** is the **psychological experience of**
being **biologically aroused by someone** we find **attractive**
339
The two-factor theory of emotions explains **being aroused by any source should**
intensify passionate feelings
340
Passionate love engages
**dopamine-rich drain areas** associated with reward
341
Passionate love =
lust + attachment
342
**Who** tends to **fall in love more readily**
men
343
Once in **love women are more**
1. **emotionally involved** as their partner or more
2. **Feel** more **euphoric**
3. The **Intimacy of friendship** and concern for partner
344
**Men** in **relationships think about**
**playful** and **physical aspects of relationship**
345
The **pattern of passionate love**
**burns hot then simmers down** once a relationship reaches stable orbit and **settles at companionate love**
346
**Divorce** rate **peaks** at
**year 4** of marriage
347
The **cooling of intense romantic love triggers** a period of
disillusion
348
**Genes** associated with **vasopressin activity predict**
martial stability
349
Under conditions of **extreme neglect, children become**
* withdrawn
* Frightened
* Silent
350
**The intense love of parent** and infant is a **form of**
passionate love
351
**Securely attached adults** find it **easy to**
1. Get **close to others**
2. **don’t fret about getting dependent** or being abandons
3. **Enjoy sexuality** within the context of a secure committed relationship
4. **Relationships** need to be **satisfying and enduring**
352
**Avoidant attachment** people in **relationships**
1. More likely to **leave a relationship**
2. **Less invested** in relationships
3. **Avoid closeness**
4. More fearful and engage in **uncommitted hookups**
5. More likely to be **sexually unfaithful to a partner**
353
**College** students in the **US attachment style 2010**
**more dismissive attachment style**
- caused by changing family structures and increased emphasis on individualism
354
Avoidant attachment
Attachments are **marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others**. An insecure attachment style.
355
Anxious attachment
Attachments **marked by anxiety or ambivalence**. An insecure attachment style.
356
Equity
**A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it**. Note: Equitable outcomes needn’t always be equal outcomes.
357
**Anxious attachment** people in **relationships**
1. **Less trusting**
2. **fearful** of partners becoming **interested in someone else**
3. more **possessive** and jealous
4. **break up repeatedly** with the same person
5. get **emotional** and angry when discussing conflicts
6. **self-esteem fluctuates** based on feedback from others
358
**Parental responsiveness is correlated** with
varying attachment styles
359
**attachment style combinations** that are **best and worst**
* Best = to securely attached partners
* Where is = anxious woman and avoidant man
360
**Strangers** or casual acquaintances **maintain equity by**
exchanging benefits
361
Those **involved in an equitable long-term relationship are**
unconcerned with short term equity
362
As **people observe their partner being self-giving**
sense of trust grows
363
**Tit for tat exchanges** boosted peoples **liking when**
the **relationship** was **relatively formal**
364
disclosure reciprocity
The tendency for one **person’s intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner.**
365
Self-disclosure
Revealing **intimate aspects of oneself to others.**
366
Those who **perceive their relationship as inequitable feel,**
* discomfort
* Distress
* depressed
367
Marital distress exacerbates
the perception of unfairness
368
Deep companionate relationships are
* Intimate
* enable us to do you known as we truly are
* to feel accepted
369
as the **relationship grows self-disclosing partners**
reveal **more of themselves** to each other
370
The way to **feed intimacy and love is**
talking about **emotions and views**
371
Rising **intimacy** will **create a stronger sense of**
passion
372
To **promote self-disclosure and ongoing dating relationships**
write about your **feelings and express more emotions to partner**
373
Growth-promoting listeners tend to be
women
374
Effects of self disclosure
nurtures love
375
Do you **predict a cultures divorce rate need to know**
it's values
376
In individualistic cultures divorce rate
**more divorce** than communal cultures
377
Those who enter a **relationship with a long-term orientation** and intentions to persist experience
1. healthier
2. less turbulent
3. more durable partnerships
378
People **usually stay married if** they
1. Married **after age 20**
2. both **grew up in stable 2 parent homes**
3. **Dated for a long** while before marriage
4. Are **well and similarly educated**
5. **Live in a small town** or on-farm
6. Enjoy a **stable income from a good job**
7. Did **not cohabitant** or become pregnant before marriage
8. **Similar age faith and education**
9. **religiously committed**
379
**Mate ejection module**
- Suffering bonds produces a predictable sequence of
1. agitated preoccupation
2. deep sadness
3. beginnings of emotional detachment
4. a renewed sense of self
380
More **painful break up one**
**closer and longer relationship** and **fewer available alternatives**
381
**4** ways of **coping with a failing relationship**
* Constructive
* Loyalty - **await improvement**
* Voice - **seek to improve relationships**
* deconstructive
* Neglect - **ignore partner**
* Exit - **end the relationship**
382
**unhappy versus happy** couples
* Unhappy
* Disagree
* command
* criticized
* put down
* Happy
* Agree
* approve
* assent
* laugh
383
**Predict** a **dim martial future**
**- especially when inhibited men coupled with critical women**
## Footnote
Coldness
Hopelessness
Disillusionment
384
Social-exchange theory
The theory that **human interactions** are **transactions that aim to maximize one’s rewards and minimize one’s costs.**
385
**Rewards** that **motive helping** can be
external or internal
386
What **explains this do-good/feel-good effect**
helping **boosts self-worth**
387
Students who **participated in school-based service-learning** **less at risk for**
1. Delinquency
2. Pregnancy
3. School dropout
388
**Volunteering** when **not forced benefits**
1. Morale
2. Heath
389
**Donating money** activates brain areas linked with
reward
390
Near someone in distress
we may **feel distress**
391
The **brain of “extraordinary altruists”**
* **Reacted** more **strongly** to images of **fearful faces**
* **Amygdala larger** than average
392
Negative emotion we act to reduce
distress and guilt
393
Cultures institutionalized ways to relieve guilt
* Animal and human sacrifices
* offerings of grains and money
* confession
* denial
* penitent behavior
394
When **people feel guilt they will**
**do whatever** can be done **to expunge the guilt and restore self-image**
395
**Eagerness** to **do good after doing bad** reflects
need to **reduce private guilt and restore a shake self-image**
396
More likely to **redeemer ourselves with helpful behavior when**
others **know our misdeeds**
397
**Exceptions** to the **“feel-bad/do-good” phenomenon**
when we **feel anger & grief**
398
The **feel-good do good effect occurs** with
people whose **attention is on others**
399
What does **helping do to moods**
* **Softens bad** mood
* **Sustains good** mood
400
Reciprocity norm
An **expectation that people will help, not hurt,** those who have helped them.
401
Social Capital
Mutual **support and cooperation are** enabled **by a social network.**
402
In a **good mood, people** are **more likely to**
have **positive thought** and **self-esteem** which leads to helping
403
Two **social norms that motivate altruism**
1. **Reciprocity** norm
2. The **social-responsibility** norm
404
**Reciprocity within social networks** define
social capital
405
The **reciprocity norm operates most effectively as**
people **respond publicly to deeds earlier done to them**
406
When people **can’t reciprocate they may feel**
**threatened and demeaned** by accepting aid
407
Social-Responsibility norm
An **expectation** that people **will help those needing help without regard to future exchanges**
408
Kin selection
The idea is that **evolution has selected altruism toward one’s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes**.
409
Those **unable** to **reciprocate** are **motivated to help by**
**social-responsibility** norm
410
**People** who **support social-responsibility norms** more
**collectivistic** cultures
411
**Western** countries and **social-responsibility norm**
* If we attribute the **need to the person choices = do not help**
* If we attribute the **need not the person = we help**
412
**Social-responsibility norm compels** us to help
those **most in need** and **most deserving**
413
**Women** offer **help to**
**men and women** equally
414
Men offer help to
attractive women more
415
Who seeks help more
**women**
- more collectivistic
416
**Evolutionary genes** that **breed super-cooperators** and **why** we are **helpful**
* **Kin selection** = if you carry my genes, I’ll favor you
* **Direct Reciprocity** = we scratch each other’s backs
* **Indirect reciprocity** = i'll scratch your back, you scratch somebody else’s, and someone will scratch mine
* **Group selection** = back-scratching group survive
417
**Genes dispose us to** care for
relatives
418
**Parents** who **prioritize children's welfare** are **more** likely to
pass genes on
419
**What programs** us to **care about close relatives**
nature and culture
420
In **life-and-death** situations **order** of **who gets helped**
1. **Children** before old
2. **Family** before friends
3. **Neighbors** before strangers
4. **Kin selection predisposes**, ethnic in-group favoritism
421
Genetic self-interests predicts
**reciprocity**
- an organisms help another because it expects help in return
422
**Reciprocity** works **best in**
small isolated groups
423
**Groups** of **mutually supportive altruists**
outlast groups of non-altruists
424
Human societies evolved
**ethical and religious rules** that serve as brakes on biological bias toward self-interest
425
Comparing and **Evaluating Theories of Helping**
426
Empathy
The vicarious experience of another’s feelings; **putting oneself in another’s shoes.**
427
**Distress** over **someone suffering motivates us to**
**relieve the upset** by **escaping the distressing situation** or helping
428
When s**ecurely attached to someone**
more **likely to help**
429
**When** we **feel empathy** we **focus on**
the **sufferer more than ourselves**
430
When **empathic people identify** with others **positive and negative emotions**
* **Negative** emotions = want to help them **feel better**
* **Positive** emotions = want to help them **maintain them**
431
To **increase empathy we**
need to **understand what another feels**
432
Presence of **more people during critical situations**
**lowered** chances that **people would help**
433
As the **number of bystanders increases** other are
1. Less likely to **interpret incident as a problem**
2. Less likely to **assume responsibility for taking action**
3. Less likely to **notice the incident**
434
Bystander effect
The finding that a person is **less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.**
435
Illusion of transparency
a tendency to **overestimate others ability to “read” our internal states**
436
Misinterpreting an emergency fed by
illusion of transparency
437
As the **number of people** **known to be aware of an emergency increases**
a given person becomes **less likely to help**
438
**Research ethics** in a study on **if we would help others**
**protect participants welfare** and **give insight into our behavior**
439
Prosocial models promote
altruism
440
**Children learn moral judgments** from
1. What they **hear preached**
2. What they **see practiced**
441
Those **not** in a **rush** to an **unimportant appointment**
stopped to **help**
442
People are **not likely to help others** if
**late** to an **important date**
443
We are **more empathic and helpful** **towards** those
**similar** and **familiar** to us
444
When **norms** for **appropriate behavior well-defines whites**
don’t discriminate
445
When **norms are ambiguous** or conflicting and **providing help is more** difficult or riskers
racial similarity maybes responses
446
**Effects** of personality on **altruism**
1. More **socially progressive in political views** more readily to help
2. Those with **Calais traits are less helpful & empathetic**
3. People who are **more sympathetic** to victims in emergency situations **respond faster** when they are the only ones there but **slower when they are other bystanders**
447
**Less privileged** people and **helping**
1. More **generous**
2. more **trusting**
3. more **helpful**
4. **Felt less entitled** to special treatment
448
People **lower and social status** showed
* **more** action in the brain **area link to sensitivity to others**
* better at **judging** others **emotions**
449
When **facing** a potentially **dangerous situation** in which **strangers needed help men**
more **often help**
450
In safe situations such as **volunteering women**
slightly **more** likely to **help then man**
451
**Gender differences** in **helping depend** on
situation
452
People who **donate more**
1. **Single women** more than men
2. Men donate more if **married to a woman**
3. **Female-headed households** donate more
453
**Primed** with **spiritual** thoughts people
1. more **generous in donations**
2. **Volunteer** more hours
3. Provide more **help to family and strangers**
454
Americans engaged with the **faith community reported volunteering**
**two** hours per week
455
The **pro-social effects of religion** were **strongest** in
countries in which **religion is based on personal choice**
456
How to **undo the restraints** on **helping**?
1. Reduce ambiguity and increase responsibility
2. Personalized appeals
3. Enable guilt and concern for self-image
457
**Reducing ambiguity** **in** an **emergency** situation
**increases responsibility** when spoken
458
**Peal appeals** are **more effective** than
**Posters** and **media** if come from friends
459
**Personalized nonverbal appeals** make one **feel**
* less anonymous
* more responsible
460
Later **helpfulness increases when**
1. **Identity** with the **person beforehand**
2. **Smile** at person beforehand
3. When **expects to meet the victim** and other witnesses again
461
The **personal treatment** makes **bystanders**
more **self-aware**
462
Circumstances that **promote self-awareness**
1. Name tags
2. Being watched
3. Undistracted quiet
463
**Guilt-laden** people **are**
**helpful people**
- even if guilt is synthetic
464
Way to **trigger** **concern** for **self-image**
1. Make a person **feel guilty**
2. Ask for a **contribution so small** it’s hard to say no
3. **Labeling** people as **helpful**
465
The saying **“Even a penny will help” does** what
increase **contributions**
466
Moral exclusion
The **perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness**. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one’s circle of moral concern.
467
How can we **increase helping?**
1. **Undo** the **restraints** on helping
2. **Socialize** altruism
468
**How** to **socialize altruism**?
1. Teach **moral inclusion**
2. **Model altruism**
3. **Learn by doing**
4. Attributing **helping behavior to altruism**
5. Learn about **altruism**
469
**Rescuers** of **Jews** in nazi Europe and the **antislavery movement** are what in **common**
they were **morally inclusive**
470
Moral exclusion justifies
harmful actions
471
When **war happens** we are more **concerned about deaths of**
our **in-group** than maybe larger outgroup
472
**People** and **numbers** of those they are **helping**
people **more willing to help one person** than two
473
By **broadening** the range of **people in our group**
the boundaries between **“we” and “they” fade**
474
If we **see or read** about someone **helping**
we become more **likely to offer assistance**
475
**Exceptional altruists** reported
**warm and close relationships** with at least one parent who was similarly a strong moralist
476
**Prosocial TV models** have
**greater effects** than antisocial models
477
**Children** from **less-educated homes** who watched **prosocial TV more**
* Cooperative
* Helpful
* Likely to state their feelings
478
**Prosocial media** that **helps aid helpful behavior**
1. Playing **protocol video games**
2. Listening to **prosocial music lyrics**
479
Helping increases
future helping
480
Over-justification effect
When **justification for an act is more than sufficient**, the person may attribute their actions to the extrinsic justification rather than to an inner motive
481
**When** **children** act **helpfully** they **develop**
1. Helping-related values, beliefs, and skills
2. Stratify the need for positive self-concept
3. “Service-learning” woven into school curriculum increases, later citizen involvement
482
By providing people with just enough **justification to prompt a good deed**
we may **increase** their **pleasure** in doing such **deeds on their own**
483
To **predispose** **more** people to **help** in situations in **which most don’t**
pays to **induce tentative positive commitment**
484
The **first step** to **becoming** a **hero** is
**recognize social pressures** that deter your bystander action
485
Once people understand why the **presence of bystanders inhibits helping**
they become more **likely to help in group situations**
486
Peace
A condition marked by **low levels of hostility** and aggression and **by mutually beneficial relationships**.
487
Conflict
A perceived **incompatibility of actions or goals.**
488
Social Trap
A situation in which the **conflicting parties**, by each rationally **pursuing their self-interest,** become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include the Prisoner’s Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons.
489
The tragedy of the Commons
The **“commons” is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies**. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the tragedy—of the commons.
490
Non-Zero-Sum Games
Games in which **outcomes need not sum to zero**. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose (also called mixed-motive situations).
491
A **Dilemma forms when**
individually **rewarding choices** **become** **collectively punishing**
492
**Most** people in the **Prisoner’s Dilemma would**
confess
493
Punishment typically triggers
retaliation escalating conflict
494
**Societies** where the **Tragedy of the commons applies**
**Both** collective and individualist
495
When **resources are not partitioned** people
**consume more** than they realize
496
Both **social traps tempt** people to
**explain** their **behavior situationally** and their **partner's behavior dispositionally**
497
How do **Motive change**
* First: people **eager to make** easy **money**
* Then: to **minimize losses**
* Finally: To **save** **gave** and **avoid defeat**
498
**Most real-life conflicts** are
non-zero-sum games
499
Not all **self-serving behavior leads** to
collective doom
500
People **approach common dilemmas with**
**cooperative outlook** and expect same **enabling collective betterment**
501
Residential Stability
when the **same families stay in a neighborhood**, also strengthens communal identity and pro-community behavior
502
In **everyday life regulation has**
cost
503
**Modern societies** depend on what to **pay for needed things**
regulation laws
504
Ways to **resolve social dilemmas**
1. **Est. rules** that regulate self-serving behavior
2. Make the **group small**
3. To **communicate**
4. Changing **payoffs to reward cooperation** and punish exploitation
5. Invoking **compelling altruistic norms**
505
In **small commons,** each **person feels**
1. More **responsible**
2. More **effective**
3. More **identified with groups’ success**
506
**Group communication** can
1. **Degenerate threats** and name-calling
2. Enable **cooperation**
3. Forges **group identity**
4. **Devises group norms** and pressures members to follow them
507
Open, clear, forthrigh**t communication between 2 parties reduces**
mistrust
508
One who **mistrust is sure to be**
uncooperative
509
**Lab** cooperation **rises** when **experimenters change the payoff matrix to**
**reward cooperation** and **punish exploitation**
510
Know what is good doesn’t lead to
doing what is good
511
To **tap** into **social responsibility feelings**
1. the **influence of a charismatic leader** who inspires others to cooperate
2. By **defying situations** in ways that **invoke cooperative norms**
3. **Communication**
512
In China those educated **during the “planned economy era” make**
more **cooperative social dilemma game choices**
513
Mao’s Planned economy
An era that **emphasized equal wealth distribution in China**
514
The “golden” rule
**Whoever** has the **gold makes the rules**
515
**Hostilities arise** when
**groups compete for scarce**
* jobs
* Housing
* Rehouses
516
Perceived threats feed
* prejudice
* Conflict
* Amplify perceptions of threat
517
What **sets** the **stage for conflict**
**group identity** & **group polarization**
518
**Win-lose** competitions **produce**
* Intense **conflict**
* Negative **images of outgroup**
* **Strong in-group cohesiveness** & pride
519
People perceive Justine as
**equity**
- the distribution of rewards in proportion to individual’s contributions
520
Those with **social power usually convince themselves** and others
that they **deserve what they’re getting**
521
**Difference** between **equality & equity**
* **Equality = same** outcomes
* **Equity = outcome proportional** to people’s contributions
522
Some **non-capitalist cultures define justice** as
**equality** or even fulfillment of need
523
Many **conflicts contain**
**a small core of truly incompatible goals** and bigger problem of misperception of other’s motives and goals
524
Seeds of **misperception of other’s motives** and goals in conflict
1. **Self-serving bias**
2. **Self-justify**
3. **Fundamental attribution error**
4. To **fit preconceptions**
5. **Polarize biasing tendons**
6. **Groupthink tendency to perceive own group as good** and outgroup as bad
7. **In-group bias**
8. **Negative stereotypes** of out-group
525
Mirror-image perceptions
**Reciprocal views of each other are often held by parties in conflict**; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.
526
**People in conflict** often form
**distorted image** of one another
527
**Opposing sides in** a **conflict** tend to
exaggerate their differences
## Footnote
**- bias blind spot**
528
Group **conflict is** often **fueled by**
the **illusion** that the **enemy’s top leaders are evil** but their people are pro-us
529
When **tensions rise**
**rational thinking** becomes more **difficult**
530
When **misperceptions accompany conflict it**
**appears and disappears as conflicts** wax and wane
531
The **conflict** goes **away when**
something **enables both parties to peel away their misperceptions** and **work at reconciling actual differences**
532
When in **conflict you should**
* Not **assume that others fail** to share your values and marly
* **Share and compare perceptions assuming that others perceive** situations differently
533
**Conflict ignited** by
1. Social traps
2. Competition
3. Perceived injustices
4. Misperceptions
534
Four **peacemaking strategies**
1. Contact
2. Cooperation
3. Communication
4. Conciliation
535
System justification
The **human tendency to approve the way things are**
536
When **tension runs high contact** may
fuel a fight
537
Contact predicts
**tolerance**
- increased contact predicts decreased prejudice
538
After **segregation whites attitudes toward blacks**
**improved** in **areas that they mixed**
539
Desegregation can
improve racial attitudes or not
540
**Desegregated neighborhoods** may **fail to produce integrated interactions** why
people can self-segregate
541
Even within the **same race likes tend to**
self-segregate
542
Many **efforts to desegregate fail because**
people **feel others don't want to desegregate**
543
How does **intergroup contact reduce prejudice** and **increase support for racially quality?**
1. Reduces anxiety
2. Increases empathy
3. Humanizes others
4. Decreasing perceived threats
544
Group salience (**visibility**) **helps** **bridge**
**divides** between **people**
545
We are more **likely to befriend dissimilar people** when
their our **group identity is initially minimized**
546
Results of **positive and negative contacts**
* **positive** contact boosts **liking = greater effect**
* **negative** contacts increase **disliking = more commonplace**
547
Equal-status contact
**Contact on an equal basis**. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should ideally be between persons equal in status.
548
Superordinate goals
A **shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort**; a goal that overrides people’s differences from one another.
549
Contact does **help build peace when**
tension is too high
550
In **conflicts** at all **levels what breeds unity**
shared threats and common goals
551
Those **mistreated become more**
**cohesive**
- misery loves company
552
To receive **discrimination against one’s racial group** is to
**feel more bonded** and **identified with such**
553
What **strengths in-group solidarity**
Fearing extinction of one’s group
554
**Superordinate goals** do what for **conflict**
**form unifying power**
- make enemies into friends
555
Cooperative learning promotes
1. academic achievement
2. improve intergroup relations
3. Cross-racial friendships blossomed
556
Being mindful of our **multiple social identities enables**
social cohesion
557
The **grandchildren of immigrants** feel more **comfortable**
**identifying** with their **ethnicity**
558
Those in the **racial majority group** more **likely** to favor
assimilation
559
**multiculturalism view** in **multiculturalism vs assimilation debate**
1. multiculturalism ensures all citizens can keep identities
2. Can take pride in their ancestry
3. Have a sense of belonging
560
**Assimilation view** in **multiculturalism vs assimilation debate**
1. multiculturalism separates people
2. Enhanced hostility in threatening situations
3. Prompted people to attach meaning to out-group members threatening behavior
4. Highlighting genetic differences contribute to violent risk
561
Alternate **common value view on multiculturalism vs assimilation debate**
there is **no ethnicity here we are all one** (all American)
562
The space between **multiculturalism and assimilation lies**
diversity within unity
563
**Immigrant** countries **avoid ethnic war** by
forging unifying ideals
564
Bargain
Seeking an **agreement to a conflict** through direct negotiation between parties.
565
Mediate
An attempt by a neutral third party to **resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions.**
566
Arbitrate
Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who **studies both sides and imposes a settlement.**
567
Integrative agreement
**Win-win agreements** that reconcile both parties’ interests to their mutual benefit.
568
**Conflicting parties** can **resolve** their differences **by** which **communication methods**
* Bargain
* Arbitrate
* Mediate
569
Tough bargaining may
lower other party’s **expectations making the other side willing to settle for less or can backfire**
570
A **time delay in barging** is often
a lose-lose scenario
571
**Mediators** help **resolve conflict** by
facilitating constructive communication
572
Mediators tasks
1. help parties rethink conflict and gain information about others’ interests
2. Has each party identified and ranked its goals
573
Communication often helps reduce
self-fulfilling misperceptions
574
A key factor in **controlled communications of conflict**
trust
575
Hearing an **outgroup person criticizing their own group**
opens people to outcrop’s perspective
576
**Walking** together **during conflict**
engages people to i**ncrease empathy and soften boundary between them**
577
When **mediation doesn’t work the next step** is
arbitration
578
When **people know** they would **face an arbitrated settlement if mediation failed**
they **tried harder** to resolve the problem
579
The **threat of arbitration fails when**
**differences** seem **large and irreconcilable**
580
GRIT
Acronym for “graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction”—**a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions.**
581
**GRIT aim**s to
**reverse the “conflict spiral”** by triggering reciprocal de-escalation
582
**GRIT requires one side** to
1. **intimate a few small de-escalatory actions after announcing a conciliatory intent**
2. Then: **initiator to eat**. Credibility and genuine by carrying out several conciliatory acts
3. Finally: **maintaining the retaliatory capability**
583
GRIT’s moto
* **Firm**: **in resisting intimidation**, exploitation, and dirty tricks
* **Fair**: i**n holding to one's moral principles** and not reciprocating the others in immoral behavior
* **Friendly**: **in the sense that one is willing to initiate** and reciprocate corporation
584
Does **GRIT** really **work**?
YES
