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Social Psychology > Exam 3 - Chapter 9 - 13 > Flashcards

Exam 3 - Chapter 9 - 13 Flashcards

1
Q

Prejudice

A

A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members.

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2
Q

Stereotypes

A

A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information (and sometimes accurate).

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3
Q

Racism

A

(1) An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race
(2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race.

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4
Q

Sexism

A

(1) An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex
(2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.

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5
Q

Discrimination

A

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members.

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6
Q

ABCs of attitudes:

A
  • A - Affect (feelings)
  • B - Behavior tendency (inclination to act)
  • C - Cognition (beliefs)
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7
Q

Problem with stereotypes come when

A

overgeneralized or plain wrong

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8
Q

Difference between prejudice and discrimination

A

Prejudice is a negative attitude

discrimination is negative behavior

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9
Q

Racism and sexism are

A

institutional practices that discriminate even when no prejudicial intent

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10
Q

Prejudiced attitudes don’t have to breed

A

hostile acts

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11
Q

Prejudice illustrates

A

our dual attitude system

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12
Q

Implicit biases modestly predict behaviors

A

from the act of friendlessness to work evaluations

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13
Q

Prejudiced and stereotypic evaluations can occur

A

outside of one’s awareness

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14
Q

Molecular biologists see skin color as

A

trivial human characteristic controlled by minuscule genetic difference

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15
Q

Is Racial Prejudice Disappearing?

A

no

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16
Q

Explicit prejudicial attitudes can

A

change quickly

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17
Q

Progress toward racial equality in blacks and whites

A
  • Blacks - Compare world to fair world = no progress
  • Whites - Compare world to past world = progress
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18
Q

Since 1975, Canadian opposition to immigration has fluctuated with the country’s unemployment rate. This opposition exemplifies

A

realistic group conflict theory

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19
Q

What is infrahumanization?

A

the process of attributing non-human qualities to outgroups

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20
Q

Carl is always yelling at his children. When his wife asks him about this behavior, he tells her the most important thing children can learn is respect for authority. He loves their kids and wants them to learn this lesson early. How can we best characterize Carl’s personality?

A

authoritarian

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21
Q

Indeed, people high in ______ often avoid jobs such as social work, that, by virtue of their aid to disadvantaged groups, undermine hierarchies.

A

SOCIAL DOMINANCE

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22
Q

Beliefs are to _______ as attitudes are to ______

A

Beliefs are to stereotypes as attitudes are to prejudices

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23
Q

Subtle prejudice is also called

A

“modern racism” or “cultural racism”

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24
Q

Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior surface when

A

people can hide behind the screen of others motives

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25
Q

Unconscious associations may only indicate cultural assumptions

A

perhaps without prejudice

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26
Q

Those who display implicit prejudice on the IAT

A

more likely to favor treatment of whites

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27
Q

Implicit prejudice and behavior

A

can leak into behavior

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28
Q

Joshua and Anthony Greenwald on implicit attitudes and behaviors

A

More people shoot black people mistakenly more than whites

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29
Q

When primed with a black rather than white face people think

A

guns

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30
Q

When people are fatigued or feel threatened

A

more likely to mistakenly shoot a minority person

  • Amygdala facilities automatic responding
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31
Q

Findings on stereotype studies

A
  • Strong gender stereotypes exist
  • Members of the stereotypes group accept stereotypes
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32
Q

Stereotypes vs. prejudices

A

Stereotypes are not prejudices

  • Stereotypes may support prejudice
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33
Q

Attitudes toward women changed

A

rapidly as racial attitudes

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34
Q

Women vs. other groups on behavior.

A
  • People don’t respond to women with gut-level negative emotions as they do minorities
  • People like women more than men
  • Women are more understanding, kind, and helpful
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35
Q

Downsides of being men

A
  1. More likely to commit suicide
  2. More likely to be murdered
  3. Majority of battlefield and death row casualties
  4. Die 5 years sooner
  5. More intellectual disability
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36
Q

The upside of being men

A

Women saw greater value In men work

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37
Q

Gender discrimination less subtle in

A

non-western world

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38
Q

People prefer having babies of which gender

A

boys

More orphanages have girl children

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39
Q

Female shortage in children contribute to

A
  • Increase
  1. violence
  2. Crime
  3. Prostitution
  4. Trafficking of women
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40
Q

Parents gender type of children

A
  • Want boys to be smart
  • Want girls to be beautiful and spend
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41
Q

Heterosexual men who value masculinity

A

express most prejudice against transgender individuals

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42
Q

In the west gay people face

A
  • Job discrimination
  • Gay marriage support is mixed but increasing
  • Harassment
  • Rejection
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43
Q

What predicts LGBT health

A
  • State policies
  • Community attitudes
  • Gay stigma
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44
Q

Social dominance orientation

A

A motivation to have one’s group dominate other social groups.

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45
Q

Ethnocentric

A

Believing in the superiority of one’s own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups.

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46
Q

Authoritarian personality

A

A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status.

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47
Q

Unequal status breeds

A

prejudice

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48
Q

Powerful men who stereotyped female subordinate gave

A

praise but fewer resources

  • which undermined performance and allowed men to maintain their power
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49
Q

Peter Glick and Susan Fiske ways we see others

A
  • Competent
  • Likable
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50
Q

Those high in social dominance orientation

A

the people in terms of hierarchies and support policies that maintain hierarchies

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51
Q

Prejudice springs from

A

equal status and acquired values and attitudes

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52
Q

Tendencies of ethnocentric people

A
  1. Intolerance for weakness
  2. Punitive attitude
  3. Submissive respect for their group’s authorities
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53
Q

If a person is sexist it is safe to assume they may also be

A

racist

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54
Q

Authoritarian people as children

A

faced harsh discipline

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55
Q

The insecurity of authoritarian individuals predisposes them to

A

excessive concern with

  • Power
  • Status
  • Inflexible right-wrong way of thinking
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56
Q

In most countries, leaders invoke religion to

A

justify present order

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57
Q

Use of religion to support injustice explained

A
  • White church members have expressed more racial prejudice than nonmembers
  • Those professing fundamentalist beliefs have expressed more prejudice than non-professing progressive police
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58
Q

Correlation between religion and prejudice

A
  1. May no causal connection
  2. Prejudice causes religion
  3. Religion causes prejudice
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59
Q

The argument for why religion doesn’t cause prejudice

A
  1. Faithful attenders are less prejudiced
  2. Intrinsically religious are less prejudiced
  3. Clergy are less prejudiced
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60
Q

Once established prejudice is maintained by

A

inertia - tendency to do nothing

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61
Q

Those who conformed most to other social norms

A

were most prejudiced

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62
Q

Hate speech can be

A

socially toxic

  • frequent hate speech leads to desensitization
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63
Q

Presidents have the power to

A

influence norms

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64
Q

If prejudice isn’t deeply ingrained in the personality then

A

then change and new norms evolve and prejudice can diminish

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65
Q

Social institutions can bolster prejudice by

A
  1. overt policies
  2. passively reinforcing the status quo
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66
Q

Institutional support for prejudice is often

A

unintended and unnoticed

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67
Q

Frustration feeds

A

hostility

  • when the cause of frustration is unknown we redirect hostility
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68
Q

Displaced aggression contributed to

A

lynching of black in south after civil war

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69
Q

When living standards high

A

societies more open to diversity

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70
Q

What fuels prejudice

A
  • Passion
  • Competition - group conflict theory
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71
Q

Group conflict theory

A

The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources.

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72
Q

Social identity

A

The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

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73
Q

In-group Bias

A

The tendency to favor one’s own group.

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74
Q

Self-concept made up of

A

personal identity and social identity

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75
Q

Tajfel and Turner soil identify theory

A
  • We put people into categories
  • We associate ourselves with certain groups - build self-esteem
  • We contrast our groups with other groups
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76
Q

When one’s personal and social identity become fused

A

more willing to fight or die for their group

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77
Q

The simple experience of being formed into groups promote

A

in group bias

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78
Q

Pros of in-group bias

A
  • Improves a positive self-concept
  • Feeds favoritism
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79
Q

More prominent to in-group bias when the group is

A

small and differs in status relative to out-group

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80
Q

Out-group stereotypes prosper when

A

people feel their in-group identity most keenly

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81
Q

In-group Bias and discrimination result less from

A

outgroup hostility than from in-group favoritism

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82
Q

To perceive ourselves as having status

A

need people below us

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83
Q

If the status is secure

A

we have less need to feel superior and express less prejudice

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84
Q

Thinking about death can

A
  1. Provoke insecurity to intensify in-group favoritism and outgroup prejudice
  2. Heighten communal feeling
  3. Affect support for important public policies
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85
Q

The connection between self-image and prejudice

A
  1. Affirm people and they will evaluate an outgroup more positively
  2. Threaten self-esteem and they will restore it by denigrating an out-group
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86
Q

When the need to belong is met

A

people more accepting of out-group

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87
Q

Motivation to lead people to

A

be prejudice and avoid prejudice

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88
Q

People low and high in prejudice

A

have similar automatic prejudicial responses

  • unwanted thoughts and feelings often persist
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89
Q

Motivation to avoid prejudice can

A

lead people to modify thoughts and actions

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90
Q

Out-group homogeneity effect

A

Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus “they are alike; we are diverse.”

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91
Q

The way we simplify our environment

A

to categorize its

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92
Q

Judging people in outer and inner groups

A

judge people in outer groups quickly take longer to form impression for those in inner groups

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93
Q

Own-age bias

A

the tendency for both children and adults to more accurately identify faces from their own age group

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94
Q

We often rely on stereotypes when

A
  1. Pressed for time
  2. Preoccupied
  3. Tired
  4. Emotionally aroused
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95
Q

Two powerful ways of categorizing people

A

ethnicity and sex

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96
Q

Categorizing someone by race

A

not prejudice but a foundation for prejudice

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97
Q

When we assign people to groups we are likely to

A

exaggerate similarities within the groups and differences between two groups

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98
Q

Greater familiarity with a social group

A

more we see its diversity

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99
Q

When looking at a face from another racial group

A

attend to group (black) rather than individuals features first

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100
Q

When someone in a group is made conspicuous

A

we see that person is causing whatever happens

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101
Q

Distinctiveness can feed

A

self-consciousness

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102
Q

Fundamental attribution error

A

we attribute others behavior so much to their inner dispositions that we discount important situational forces

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103
Q

Group-serving bias

A

Explaining away outgroup members’ positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one’s own group).

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104
Q

Just-world Phenomenon

A

The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people, therefore, get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

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105
Q

Sub-typing

A

Accommodating individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by thinking of them as “exceptions to the rule.”

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106
Q

Stereotype threat

A

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one’s reputation into one’s self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.

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107
Q

Given a limited experience with a particular social group

A

we recall examples of it and generalize from those

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108
Q

Cons of generalizing from a single experience about the whole group

A

Seldom represents larger group

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109
Q

Those more distinctive may

A

overestimated by majority

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110
Q

Vivid cases distort

A

judgments and create stereotypes

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111
Q

Stereotypes assume a correlation between

A

group members and individuals presumed characteristics

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112
Q

Features that most distinguish a minority from a majority

A

are those that become associated with minority

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113
Q

Fundamental attribution error and in and outer groups

A
  • Outer group =
    • Negative behavior - it’s a person not situation
    • Positive behavior - often dismissed
    • In-group =
      • Negative behavior - it’s the situation
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114
Q

Disadvantage groups and groups that stress modesty

A

exhibit less group serving bias

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115
Q

Blaming occurs when people

A

attribute an outgroup’s failure to its members’ flawed disposition

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116
Q

Merely observing another innocent person being victimized is

A

enough to make the victim seem less worthy

  • stems from the need to believe we like in just world
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117
Q

Just-world phenomenon colors

A

our impression of rape victims

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118
Q

Those who assume a just world believe

A
  1. Rape victims must have behaved seductively
  2. Battered spouses must have provided their beatings
  3. Poor people don’t deserve better
  4. Sick people are responsible for their illnesses
  5. Teens who are bullied online deserve it
  6. Successful people deserve what they have
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119
Q

Just-world assumption leads to

A
  1. Discounting uncontrollable factors that can derail good effort of talented people
  2. Justify their culture’s familiar social systems​
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120
Q

Prejudgments guide

A

our attention and memories

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121
Q

After we judge an item as belonging to a category

A

our memory for it later shifts toward the features we associate with that category

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122
Q

Prejudgments are

A

self-perpetuating

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123
Q

When information doesn’t fit a stereotype

A
  1. We often say it was special to the situation
  2. If strikingly inconsistent - we notice but less impact
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124
Q

High-prejudice people tend to subtype

A

positive outgroup members

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125
Q

Low-prejudice people tend to

A

subtype negative outgroup members

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126
Q

Different way to accommodate inconsistent information is

A

form new stereotypes for those who don’t fit

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127
Q

If victimization takes a toll

A

people can use the results to justify discrimination

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128
Q

Prejudice effects who

A

its targets

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129
Q

Stereotype threat

A

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one’s reputation into one’s self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.

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130
Q

Being sensitive to prejudice

A

makes us self-conscious when living as numerical minors

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131
Q

Stereotype threat can hamper

A

the persons performance

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132
Q

Students who are allowed to think they have benefited from gender or race-based preferences on getting to college

A

tend to under perform those who are led to feel content

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133
Q

What helps combat stereotype threat

A

values affirmation

  • getting people to affirm who they are
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134
Q

How does stereotype treatment undermine performance?

A
  1. Builds stress
  2. Self-monitoring
  3. Suppressing unwanted thoughts and emotions
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135
Q

Negative and positive stereotypes and performance

A

negative stereotypes disrupt performance

positive stereotypes facilitate performance

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136
Q

Do Stereotypes Bias Judgments of Individuals?

A

yes

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137
Q

stereotypes mostly reflect

A

reality

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138
Q

People often evaluate individuals more

A

positively than the individual groups

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139
Q

When do most believe stereotypes and ignore them

A

people often believe stereotypes yet ignore them when giving personalize anecdotal information

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140
Q

Wrong stereotypes color

A

our judgment of individuals

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141
Q

Stereotypes can bias our

A

interpretations and memories of people

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142
Q

When stereotypes are strong and information about someone ambiguous

A

stereotypes can subtly bias our judgement of individuals

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143
Q

We evaluate people more extremely when

A

behavior violates our stereotype

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144
Q

Aggression

A

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another’s feelings.

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145
Q

Physical Aggression

A

Hurting someone else’s body.

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146
Q

Social Aggression

A

Hurting someone else’s feelings or threatening their relationships. Sometimes called relational aggression, it includes cyberbullying and some forms of in-person bullying.

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147
Q

Hostile Aggression

A

Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure.

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148
Q

Instinctive

A

An innate, unlearned behavior pattern is exhibited by all members of a species.

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149
Q

Instrumental Aggression

A

Aggression that aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end.

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150
Q

“Selfish gene” theory

A

evolutionary psychologist theory of the relationship between genetic relatedness and aggression. This explains why men are more likely to harm stepchildren than genetic children

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151
Q

Frustration-aggression theory

A

The theory is that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress.

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152
Q

Frustration

A

The blocking of goal-directed behavior.

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153
Q

Displacement

A

The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target.

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154
Q

Relative deprivation

A

The perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself.

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155
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

The theory is that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished.

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156
Q

Rape myth

A

some women would welcome sexual assault and that “no doesn’t mean no”

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157
Q

Prosocial behavior

A

Positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior.

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158
Q

Social Scripts

A

Culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations.

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159
Q

Hydraulic model

A

implies accumulated aggressive energy needs a release. Emotional and physical

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160
Q

Scapegoat theory

A

If we are prevented from reaching a goal, oftentimes we become hostile, and if we cannot pinpoint the source, we often display displaced aggression.

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161
Q

Two categories of Aggression

A
  1. Physical aggression
  2. Social aggression
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162
Q

Dan Owlets and Kyrre Breivik consequences of bullying

A

“the opposite of well-being”

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163
Q

What isn’t included in social psychology definition of aggression

A

micro aggressions

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164
Q

What is mostly instrumental aggression

A
  • Terrorism
  • War
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165
Q

What is mostly hostile aggression

A

murders

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166
Q

Sigmund Freud on aggression formation

A

from a self-destructive impulse redirected towards others

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167
Q

Konrad Lorenz on aggression formation

A

adaptive rather than self-destructive

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168
Q

Critiques of the idea that aggression is instinctive

A
  1. Fails to account for variations in aggression
  2. Not all human behaviors are instinctive
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169
Q

The reasoning for the idea that aggression is instinctive

A

aggression sometimes rooted in basic evolutionary impulses

  • especially in men
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170
Q

Male related aggression occurs when

A

males competing with other males

When social status is challenged - especially in face-to-to confrontations

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171
Q

Brain biology of more aggressive people

A
  • Smaller amygdala’s
  • Prefrontal cortex less active in murderers and antisocial men
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172
Q

People with mental illnesses more likely to be

A

victims of violence than perpetrators

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173
Q

Heredity influences

A

the neural system’s sensitivity to aggressive cues

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174
Q

Gene linked to aggression

A

MAOA-L “warrior gene”

  • nature and nurture still interact
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175
Q

Alcohol unlocks aggression when

A

people are provoked

  • by reducing people’s self-awareness
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176
Q

Human aggressiveness and testosterone

A

correlates with each other

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177
Q

To lower aggression eat a diet high in

A
  • Omega-3 fatty acid
  • Low in trans fat
  • Without sweetened drinks
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178
Q

Relationship between biology and behavior

A

bidirectional

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179
Q

Fans of ____ team commit more postgame assaults

A

winning rather than losing

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180
Q

What influences predispose people to react aggressively to conflict and provocation

A
  1. Neural
  2. Genetic
  3. Biochemical
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181
Q

Frustration grows once

A
  1. Motivation to achieve very strong
  2. We expected gratification
  3. The blocking is complete
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182
Q

Cyberbullying often rooted in

A

frustration

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183
Q

When others might disapprove or punish we

A

redirect hostilities to say for target

-Explains why someone already angry will lash out more readily later

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184
Q

Who especially vulnerable to displaced anger

A

our group target

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185
Q

Results of lab test of frustration-aggression theory

A

Sometimes frustration increased aggressiveness

  • sometimes lead to irritation
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186
Q

A revised version of Frustration-aggression theory

A

frustration produces aggression only when people become upset

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187
Q

Frustrated people are likely to lash out when

A

aggression cues pull the cork releasing bottled up anger

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188
Q

Frustration arises from the gap between

A

expectations and attainments

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189
Q

Relative deprivation explains

A

why happiness is lower and crime rates higher in countries with more income inequality

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190
Q

One source of frustration today

A

affluence depicted in TV

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191
Q

Rewards of aggression

A
  1. Can feel satisfying
  2. Instrument in achieving certain rewards
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192
Q

Albert Bandura aggression formation

A

social learning theory

  • watching people’s behavior and learning from their consequences
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193
Q

Observing aggressive behavior

A

lowered inhibitions and taught ways to agrees

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194
Q

institutions that decreased US aggressive acts

A
  • Economic trade
  • Education
  • Government policing and justice
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195
Q

The US has seen declines in aggression and violent acts such as

A
  • Lynchings
  • rape
  • corporal punishment
  • anti-gay attitudes and intimidations
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196
Q

People sensitive to disgust

A

less aggressive

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197
Q

Aggressive behavior spreads in social groups through

A

modeling

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198
Q

Physically aggressive children tend to have had

A

physically punitive parents

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199
Q

In communities were “macho” images admired

A

aggression readily transmitted to new generations

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200
Q

Men from where more likely to bagel aggressively

A
  1. Non-democratic areas
  2. High in income inequality
  3. Focus on teaching meant to be warriors
  4. Gone to war
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201
Q

American cities populated by southerners have higher

A

average White homicide rates

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202
Q

People learn aggressive responses by

A

experience and observing aggression models

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203
Q

Pain heightens

A

aggressiveness

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204
Q

Temporary climate variations can affect

A

behavior

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205
Q

Offensive odor’s linked with

A

aggressive behavior

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206
Q

Heat and aggression

A

heat may frustrate people but not lead to aggressive tendencies directly

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207
Q

Intentional attacks breed

A

retaliatory attacks

  • Being intact or insulted breeds aggression
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208
Q

A state of arousal can be interpreted in

A

different ways depending on the contacts

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209
Q

What intensifies any emotion

A

being physically stirred up

  • arousal fuels emotions
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210
Q

Arousal can amplify

A

another form of arousal

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211
Q

Violence is more likely when

A

aggressive cues release pent up anger

  • The sight of weapon is a qua
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212
Q

Risk of guns at home

A

a gun in the house is 12 times more likely to kill household member than an intruder

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213
Q

Gun serves as

A
  1. aggressive cues
  2. psychological distance between aggressor and victim
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214
Q

Viewing fictional scenes of men overpowering and arousing women can

A
  • Distort men’s perceptions of how women actually respond to sexual coercion
  • Increase men’s aggression against women
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215
Q

Those who view sexual violence

A

more likely to believe the rape myth

  • expose to porn
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216
Q

Exposure to erotic films

A
  1. Decrease attraction to one’s partner
  2. Increase acceptance of extramarital sex
  3. Increase men’s perceiving women in sexual terms
  4. Increase physical force, verbal coercion ,and harassment
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217
Q

Who reports using porn at unusually high rates

A
  • Rapists
  • Serial killers
  • Child molesters
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218
Q

Exposure to violent porn increases

A

punitive behavior towards women

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219
Q

average US house TV usage

A

7 hours a day

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220
Q

Heavy viewing of aggressive TV

A

more aggressive

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221
Q

Those who watch more violence in childhood

A

more likely to have been convicted of a crime

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222
Q

8-year-olds violence viewing predicted

A

spouse abuse as adult

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223
Q

Adolescent’s violence viewing predicted

A

engaging in assault and robbery

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224
Q

Elementary school children’s violent media exposure predicted

A

how often do they get into fights 2 - 6 months later

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225
Q

Media viewing Experiments confirm

A

viewing violence amplifies aggression

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226
Q

Viewing violence increase violence for those

A
  1. with aggressive tendencies
  2. when an attractive person commits justified realistic violence that goes unpunished
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227
Q

Why does media viewing affect behavior

A
  1. Arousal it produces
  2. Disinhibits
  3. Evokes imitation
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228
Q

Media violence exposure decreased feeling of

A

empathy for other

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229
Q

We rely on social scripts when

A

we are new situations and don’t know how to act

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230
Q

The more sexual content adolescents view

A

more likely they are

  1. to perceive peers as sexually active
  2. Develop sexually permissive attitudes
  3. Experience early intercourse
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231
Q

Those who watch much TV see the world as

A

scary place

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232
Q

Watching violent TV primes

A

aggression-related ideas

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233
Q

Who plays violent video games

A

Older and younger children

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234
Q

Concerns of video games heighten after

A

teen assassins in serval mass shooting

235
Q

Reasons why violent games have more toxic effect than watching TV

A

players

  1. Identify with a violent character
  2. Actively rehearse violence
  3. Engage in a whole sequence of enacting violence
  4. Engaged with continual violence
  5. Repeat violent behaviors
  6. Rewarded for violent acts
236
Q

Playing violent video games

A

increase aggressive behavior and thoughts

237
Q

Effects of playing video games

A
  1. Increase in aggressive behavior
  2. Increase in aggressive thoughts
  3. Increase in aggressive feelings
  4. Habituation in the brain
  5. Greater likelihood of carrying a weapon
  6. Decreases in self-control and increase in antisocial behavior
  7. Decrease in helping others and in empathy for others
  8. Less time on schoolwork
238
Q

After violent video games people more likely to

A

exploit than to trust

239
Q

Pros of video games

A
  1. Improve hand-eye coordination, reaction time, spatial ability and selective attention
  2. Fulfill a need for competence, control and social connection
240
Q

Those who play prosocial video games

A
  1. helped others
  2. shared
  3. correlated more
241
Q

Parents and video games

A

encourage parents to discover what kids are ingesting to ensure healthy media diet

242
Q

Groups can amplify aggressive reactions by

A

diffusing responsibility

243
Q

Diffusion of responsibility increases with

A

distance and numbers

244
Q

As group identify develops

A

conformity and deindividuation increases

245
Q

Increased aggression predicted by

A
  1. Being male
  2. Aggressive or anger-prone personalities
  3. Alcohol use
  4. Violence viewing
  5. Anonymity
  6. Provocation
  7. Presence of weapon
  8. Group interaction
246
Q

Hydraulic model example

A

people paying to go to smash rooms

247
Q

Catharsis credited to

A

Artistotle

248
Q

If lead to believe that catharsis effectively vents emotions

A

people react more aggressively to insult as a way to prove mood

249
Q

Psychologists view on catharsis

A

therapeutic

250
Q

An effective way to reduce aggression

A

doing nothing more than hitting a bag

251
Q

Cruel act breed

A

cruel attitudes

252
Q

Retaliation reduces

A

tension and provides pleasure

253
Q

Should people bottle up anger and aggressive urges?

A

no

  • People can be assertive without aggressive
254
Q

If aggression behavior is learned then

A

hope for controlling it

255
Q

Aversive experiences predispose

A

hostile agression

256
Q

Anticipated rewards and costs influence

A

instrumental aggression

257
Q

Threaten punishment can

A

deter aggression only under ideal conditions

258
Q

Limits to effective punishments

A

Mortal aggression = severely punish afterward

259
Q

Prevent aggression

A

before it happens

-Model and reward sensitivity and cooperation from an early age

260
Q

Ostracism

A

Acts of excluding or ignoring. Counteracts need to belong

261
Q

Proximity

A

Geographical nearness. Proximity (more precisely, “functional distance”) powerfully predicts liking.

262
Q

Functional distance

A

How often people’s paths cross

263
Q

Mere exposure

A

The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.

264
Q

When humans belong we tend to be

A
  1. Healthier
  2. Happier
  3. A deep sense of well-being = paired with autonomy & competence
265
Q

Bullying vs. Ostracized

A

Ostracized worse because doesn’t acknowledge your existence

266
Q

People who are socially rejected by those close to them

A

engage in self-defeating behaviors

267
Q

Ostracized people brain function

A
  1. Deficits in brain mechanisms that inhibit unwanted behavior
  2. Heightened activity in brain cortex that activates in response to physical pain
268
Q

Ostracism effect of a person

A
  • Increases aggression
  • Depressed heart rate
269
Q

What can reduce hurt feelings

A
  1. Tylenol
  2. sending light electrical current to brain region related to rejection
270
Q

Feeling love activates

A

brain reward systems

271
Q

Proximity can breed

A
  • Friendships
  • Hostility
  • Liking
272
Q

Interaction or functional distance allows people to

A

explore similarities

273
Q

Why does proximity breed liking?

A
  1. availability of that person
  2. Enables people to discover commonalities and exchange rewards
  3. The anticipation of interaction boosts liking
274
Q

Too much exposure - if receptions are incessant - liking

A

eventually drops

275
Q

Mere exposure breeds

A
  1. More positive attitudes of social groups
  2. Pleasant feeling
276
Q

Mere exposure has a stronger effect when

A

people receive stimuli without awareness

277
Q

Emotions vs thinking speed

A

Emotions are often more instantaneous than thinking

278
Q

The negative side to mere exposure effect

A

wariness of unfamiliar

279
Q

A good predictor of how frequently humans date

A

their attractiveness

280
Q

In dating for men what is important

A

attractiveness

281
Q

In dating for women what is important

A
  • Honesty
  • Humor
  • Kindness
  • dependability
282
Q

Attractive wives led to

A

happier husbands

283
Q

When it comes to short interactions attractiveness is important to

A

men and women

  • speed dating
284
Q

People tend to select people to be close with based on

A
  1. How similar they are in
  2. Popularity
  3. Self-worth
  4. Attractiveness
  5. Intelligence
285
Q

Matching Phenomenon

A

The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a “good match” in attractiveness and other traits.

286
Q

Physical-attractiveness stereotype

A

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.

287
Q

When couples are similar in attractiveness

A

relationship grows

288
Q

A less-attractive person in a relationship often has

A

compensating qualities

289
Q

Does the attractiveness effect spring entirely from sexual attractiveness?

A

No

290
Q

Seeing photos of facially disfigured people judged them as

A
  1. Less intelligent
  2. Less emotional stable
  3. Less trustworthy
291
Q

Humans believe beautiful people are

A
  1. more Happier
  2. more Sexually warmer
  3. more Outgoing
  4. more Intelligent
  5. more Successful
  6. Less honest
292
Q

Women who have had cosmetic work done were perceived as more

A
  1. Kinder
  2. Sensitive
  3. Sexually warm
  4. Responsive
  5. Likable
293
Q

Most affects first impressions

A

attractiveness

294
Q

Attractiveness better predicts what in urban settings

A

happiness and social connections

295
Q

Attractive children and young adults are somewhat more

A
  • Relaxed
  • Outgoing
  • Socially polished
  • More popular
  • More gender-typed
296
Q

Attractiveness

A

whatever people of any given place and time find attractive/

297
Q

For cultures with scarce resources what is attractive

A

plumpness

298
Q

For cultures with abundant resources what is attractive

A

slimness

299
Q

Attractiveness influences life outcomes less in cultures where

A

relationships are based more on kinship or social arrangement

300
Q

To be really attractive is to be

A
  1. perfectly average
  2. Symmetrical
301
Q

Beauty signals biologically important information

A
302
Q

Women emphasis on men’s physical attractiveness depends on goals

A
  • Short-term relationship = Prefer more symmetrical men
  • Long-term relationship = attractiveness less important
303
Q

Men everywhere are most attracted to women whose

A

waists are 30% narrower than hip

  • sign of peak sexual fertility
304
Q

Circumstances that reduce a woman’s fertility and change shape

A
  1. Malnutrition
  2. pregnancy
  3. menopause
305
Q

Men who find beauty standards on magazines find average women

A

less attractive

306
Q

Complementarity

A

The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other.

307
Q

Being sexually aroused temporality makes a person of the other sex seem

A

more attractive

308
Q

After viewing a very attractive person of same-gender people rate themselves

A

less attractive

309
Q

We perceive likable people as

A

attractive

310
Q

The more in love a woman is with a man

A

the more physically attractive she finds him

311
Q

The greater similarity between a couple

A

happier they are and less likely to divorce

312
Q

The more similar someone’s attitudes are to your own

A

the more you will like the person

313
Q

We tend to see those we like as

A

being like us

314
Q

Dissimilar attitudes

A

depress linking more than similar attitudes improve it

315
Q

Whenever one group regards another as “other”

A

potential for conflict is high

316
Q

“Cultural racism” persists because

A

cultural differences are a fact of life

317
Q

We are physically attracted to people whose scent suggests

A

dissimilar enough genes to prevent inbreeding

318
Q

We like people similar to us in

A
  1. Popularity
  2. Aggressiveness
  3. Academic performance
  4. Attitudes
  5. Needs
  6. Personalities
319
Q

Influence our initial attraction to someone

A

proximity + attractiveness

320
Q

Ingratiation

A

The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another’s favor.

321
Q

Reward theory of attraction

A

The theory is that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events.

322
Q

Passionate love

A

A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner’s love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

323
Q

Influences longer-term attraction

A

similarity

324
Q

We tend to like people who

A
  1. are like us
  2. Rewarding to be with
  3. Associate with a good feeling
325
Q

If praise violates what we know

A

we may lose respect for flatterer and wonder if compliment springs ulterior motives

326
Q

We perceive criticism to be

A

more sincere than praise

327
Q

Constant approval can

A

lose value

328
Q

If a relationship gives more reward than the cost

A

we will like it more and want it to continue

329
Q

If a relationship is going to survive it is important to associate the relationship with

A

good things

330
Q

Reward theory of attraction explains why

A
  1. Proximity is rewarding
  2. We like attractive people because we perceive that they offer desirable traits
  3. If others have similar opinions we feel rewarded because we think they like us in return
  4. We like those who like us
331
Q

Robert Sternberg view on love

A

triangle consisting of

  1. passion
  2. intimacy
  3. commitment
332
Q

Common elements of love in loving relationships

A
  1. Mutual understanding
  2. Giving and receiving support
  3. Enjoying loved one’s company
333
Q

When experiencing passionate love we express it

A

physically and want it to be exclusive

334
Q

Two-factor theory of emotion

A

Arousal × its label = emotion.

335
Q

Companionate love

A

The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined.

336
Q

Secure attachment

A

Attachments are rooted in trust and marked by intimacy.

337
Q

Elaine Hatfield on passionate love

A

a state of intense longing for union with another

338
Q

Passionate love is the psychological experience of

A

being biologically aroused by someone we find attractive

339
Q

The two-factor theory of emotions explains being aroused by any source should

A

intensify passionate feelings

340
Q

Passionate love engages

A

dopamine-rich drain areas associated with reward

341
Q

Passionate love =

A

lust + attachment

342
Q

Who tends to fall in love more readily

A

men

343
Q

Once in love women are more

A
  1. emotionally involved as their partner or more
  2. Feel more euphoric
  3. The Intimacy of friendship and concern for partner
344
Q

Men in relationships think about

A

playful and physical aspects of relationship

345
Q

The pattern of passionate love

A

burns hot then simmers down once a relationship reaches stable orbit and settles at companionate love

346
Q

Divorce rate peaks at

A

year 4 of marriage

347
Q

The cooling of intense romantic love triggers a period of

A

disillusion

348
Q

Genes associated with vasopressin activity predict

A

martial stability

349
Q

Under conditions of extreme neglect, children become

A
  • withdrawn
  • Frightened
  • Silent
350
Q

The intense love of parent and infant is a form of

A

passionate love

351
Q

Securely attached adults find it easy to

A
  1. Get close to others
  2. don’t fret about getting dependent or being abandons
  3. Enjoy sexuality within the context of a secure committed relationship
  4. Relationships need to be satisfying and enduring
352
Q

Avoidant attachment people in relationships

A
  1. More likely to leave a relationship
  2. Less invested in relationships
  3. Avoid closeness
  4. More fearful and engage in uncommitted hookups
  5. More likely to be sexually unfaithful to a partner
353
Q

College students in the US attachment style 2010

A

more dismissive attachment style

  • caused by changing family structures and increased emphasis on individualism
354
Q

Avoidant attachment

A

Attachments are marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others. An insecure attachment style.

355
Q

Anxious attachment

A

Attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. An insecure attachment style.

356
Q

Equity

A

A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: Equitable outcomes needn’t always be equal outcomes.

357
Q

Anxious attachment people in relationships

A
  1. Less trusting
  2. fearful of partners becoming interested in someone else
  3. more possessive and jealous
  4. break up repeatedly with the same person
  5. get emotional and angry when discussing conflicts
  6. self-esteem fluctuates based on feedback from others
358
Q

Parental responsiveness is correlated with

A

varying attachment styles

359
Q

attachment style combinations that are best and worst

A
  • Best = to securely attached partners
  • Where is = anxious woman and avoidant man
360
Q

Strangers or casual acquaintances maintain equity by

A

exchanging benefits

361
Q

Those involved in an equitable long-term relationship are

A

unconcerned with short term equity

362
Q

As people observe their partner being self-giving

A

sense of trust grows

363
Q

Tit for tat exchanges boosted peoples liking when

A

the relationship was relatively formal

364
Q

disclosure reciprocity

A

The tendency for one person’s intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner.

365
Q

Self-disclosure

A

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

366
Q

Those who perceive their relationship as inequitable feel,

A
  • discomfort
  • Distress
  • depressed
367
Q

Marital distress exacerbates

A

the perception of unfairness

368
Q

Deep companionate relationships are

A
  • Intimate
  • enable us to do you known as we truly are
  • to feel accepted
369
Q

as the relationship grows self-disclosing partners

A

reveal more of themselves to each other

370
Q

The way to feed intimacy and love is

A

talking about emotions and views

371
Q

Rising intimacy will create a stronger sense of

A

passion

372
Q

To promote self-disclosure and ongoing dating relationships

A

write about your feelings and express more emotions to partner

373
Q

Growth-promoting listeners tend to be

A

women

374
Q

Effects of self disclosure

A

nurtures love

375
Q

Do you predict a cultures divorce rate need to know

A

it’s values

376
Q

In individualistic cultures divorce rate

A

more divorce than communal cultures

377
Q

Those who enter a relationship with a long-term orientation and intentions to persist experience

A
  1. healthier
  2. less turbulent
  3. more durable partnerships
378
Q

People usually stay married if they

A
  1. Married after age 20
  2. both grew up in stable 2 parent homes
  3. Dated for a long while before marriage
  4. Are well and similarly educated
  5. Live in a small town or on-farm
  6. Enjoy a stable income from a good job
  7. Did not cohabitant or become pregnant before marriage
  8. Similar age faith and education
  9. religiously committed
379
Q

Mate ejection module

  • Suffering bonds produces a predictable sequence of
A
  1. agitated preoccupation
  2. deep sadness
  3. beginnings of emotional detachment
  4. a renewed sense of self
380
Q

More painful break up one

A

closer and longer relationship and fewer available alternatives

381
Q

4 ways of coping with a failing relationship

A
  • Constructive
    • Loyalty - await improvement
    • Voice - seek to improve relationships
  • deconstructive
    • Neglect - ignore partner
    • Exit - end the relationship
382
Q

unhappy versus happy couples

A
  • Unhappy
    • Disagree
    • command
    • criticized
    • put down
  • Happy
    • Agree
    • approve
    • assent
    • laugh
383
Q

Predict a dim martial future

A

- especially when inhibited men coupled with critical women

Coldness

Hopelessness

Disillusionment

384
Q

Social-exchange theory

A

The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one’s rewards and minimize one’s costs.

385
Q

Rewards that motive helping can be

A

external or internal

386
Q

What explains this do-good/feel-good effect

A

helping boosts self-worth

387
Q

Students who participated in school-based service-learning less at risk for

A
  1. Delinquency
  2. Pregnancy
  3. School dropout
388
Q

Volunteering when not forced benefits

A
  1. Morale
  2. Heath
389
Q

Donating money activates brain areas linked with

A

reward

390
Q

Near someone in distress

A

we may feel distress

391
Q

The brain of “extraordinary altruists”

A
  • Reacted more strongly to images of fearful faces
  • Amygdala larger than average
392
Q

Negative emotion we act to reduce

A

distress and guilt

393
Q

Cultures institutionalized ways to relieve guilt

A
  • Animal and human sacrifices
  • offerings of grains and money
  • confession
  • denial
  • penitent behavior
394
Q

When people feel guilt they will

A

do whatever can be done to expunge the guilt and restore self-image

395
Q

Eagerness to do good after doing bad reflects

A

need to reduce private guilt and restore a shake self-image

396
Q

More likely to redeemer ourselves with helpful behavior when

A

others know our misdeeds

397
Q

Exceptions to the “feel-bad/do-good” phenomenon

A

when we feel anger & grief

398
Q

The feel-good do good effect occurs with

A

people whose attention is on others

399
Q

What does helping do to moods

A
  • Softens bad mood
  • Sustains good mood
400
Q

Reciprocity norm

A

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

401
Q

Social Capital

A

Mutual support and cooperation are enabled by a social network.

402
Q

In a good mood, people are more likely to

A

have positive thought and self-esteem which leads to helping

403
Q

Two social norms that motivate altruism

A
  1. Reciprocity norm
  2. The social-responsibility norm
404
Q

Reciprocity within social networks define

A

social capital

405
Q

The reciprocity norm operates most effectively as

A

people respond publicly to deeds earlier done to them

406
Q

When people can’t reciprocate they may feel

A

threatened and demeaned by accepting aid

407
Q

Social-Responsibility norm

A

An expectation that people will help those needing help without regard to future exchanges

408
Q

Kin selection

A

The idea is that evolution has selected altruism toward one’s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes.

409
Q

Those unable to reciprocate are motivated to help by

A

social-responsibility norm

410
Q

People who support social-responsibility norms more

A

collectivistic cultures

411
Q

Western countries and social-responsibility norm

A
  • If we attribute the need to the person choices = do not help
  • If we attribute the need not the person = we help
412
Q

Social-responsibility norm compels us to help

A

those most in need and most deserving

413
Q

Women offer help to

A

men and women equally

414
Q

Men offer help to

A

attractive women more

415
Q

Who seeks help more

A

women

  • more collectivistic
416
Q

Evolutionary genes that breed super-cooperators and why we are helpful

A
  • Kin selection = if you carry my genes, I’ll favor you
  • Direct Reciprocity = we scratch each other’s backs
  • Indirect reciprocity = i’ll scratch your back, you scratch somebody else’s, and someone will scratch mine
  • Group selection = back-scratching group survive
417
Q

Genes dispose us to care for

A

relatives

418
Q

Parents who prioritize children’s welfare are more likely to

A

pass genes on

419
Q

What programs us to care about close relatives

A

nature and culture

420
Q

In life-and-death situations order of who gets helped

A
  1. Children before old
  2. Family before friends
  3. Neighbors before strangers
  4. Kin selection predisposes, ethnic in-group favoritism
421
Q

Genetic self-interests predicts

A

reciprocity

  • an organisms help another because it expects help in return
422
Q

Reciprocity works best in

A

small isolated groups

423
Q

Groups of mutually supportive altruists

A

outlast groups of non-altruists

424
Q

Human societies evolved

A

ethical and religious rules that serve as brakes on biological bias toward self-interest

425
Q

Comparing and Evaluating Theories of Helping

A
426
Q

Empathy

A

The vicarious experience of another’s feelings; putting oneself in another’s shoes.

427
Q

Distress over someone suffering motivates us to

A

relieve the upset by escaping the distressing situation or helping

428
Q

When securely attached to someone

A

more likely to help

429
Q

When we feel empathy we focus on

A

the sufferer more than ourselves

430
Q

When empathic people identify with others positive and negative emotions

A
  • Negative emotions = want to help them feel better
  • Positive emotions = want to help them maintain them
431
Q

To increase empathy we

A

need to understand what another feels

432
Q

Presence of more people during critical situations

A

lowered chances that people would help

433
Q

As the number of bystanders increases other are

A
  1. Less likely to interpret incident as a problem
  2. Less likely to assume responsibility for taking action
  3. Less likely to notice the incident
434
Q

Bystander effect

A

The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.

435
Q

Illusion of transparency

A

a tendency to overestimate others ability to “read” our internal states

436
Q

Misinterpreting an emergency fed by

A

illusion of transparency

437
Q

As the number of people known to be aware of an emergency increases

A

a given person becomes less likely to help

438
Q

Research ethics in a study on if we would help others

A

protect participants welfare and give insight into our behavior

439
Q

Prosocial models promote

A

altruism

440
Q

Children learn moral judgments from

A
  1. What they hear preached
  2. What they see practiced
441
Q

Those not in a rush to an unimportant appointment

A

stopped to help

442
Q

People are not likely to help others if

A

late to an important date

443
Q

We are more empathic and helpful towards those

A

similar and familiar to us

444
Q

When norms for appropriate behavior well-defines whites

A

don’t discriminate

445
Q

When norms are ambiguous or conflicting and providing help is more difficult or riskers

A

racial similarity maybes responses

446
Q

Effects of personality on altruism

A
  1. More socially progressive in political views more readily to help
  2. Those with Calais traits are less helpful & empathetic
  3. People who are more sympathetic to victims in emergency situations respond faster when they are the only ones there but slower when they are other bystanders
447
Q

Less privileged people and helping

A
  1. More generous
  2. more trusting
  3. more helpful
  4. Felt less entitled to special treatment
448
Q

People lower and social status showed

A
  • more action in the brain area link to sensitivity to others
  • better at judging others emotions
449
Q

When facing a potentially dangerous situation in which strangers needed help men

A

more often help

450
Q

In safe situations such as volunteering women

A

slightly more likely to help then man

451
Q

Gender differences in helping depend on

A

situation

452
Q

People who donate more

A
  1. Single women more than men
  2. Men donate more if married to a woman
  3. Female-headed households donate more
453
Q

Primed with spiritual thoughts people

A
  1. more generous in donations
  2. Volunteer more hours
  3. Provide more help to family and strangers
454
Q

Americans engaged with the faith community reported volunteering

A

two hours per week

455
Q

The pro-social effects of religion were strongest in

A

countries in which religion is based on personal choice

456
Q

How to undo the restraints on helping?

A
  1. Reduce ambiguity and increase responsibility
  2. Personalized appeals
  3. Enable guilt and concern for self-image
457
Q

Reducing ambiguity in an emergency situation

A

increases responsibility when spoken

458
Q

Peal appeals are more effective than

A

Posters and media if come from friends

459
Q

Personalized nonverbal appeals make one feel

A
  • less anonymous
  • more responsible
460
Q

Later helpfulness increases when

A
  1. Identity with the person beforehand
  2. Smile at person beforehand
  3. When expects to meet the victim and other witnesses again
461
Q

The personal treatment makes bystanders

A

more self-aware

462
Q

Circumstances that promote self-awareness

A
  1. Name tags
  2. Being watched
  3. Undistracted quiet
463
Q

Guilt-laden people are

A

helpful people

  • even if guilt is synthetic
464
Q

Way to trigger concern for self-image

A
  1. Make a person feel guilty
  2. Ask for a contribution so small it’s hard to say no
  3. Labeling people as helpful
465
Q

The saying “Even a penny will help” does what

A

increase contributions

466
Q

Moral exclusion

A

The perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one’s circle of moral concern.

467
Q

How can we increase helping?

A
  1. Undo the restraints on helping
  2. Socialize altruism
468
Q

How to socialize altruism?

A
  1. Teach moral inclusion
  2. Model altruism
  3. Learn by doing
  4. Attributing helping behavior to altruism
  5. Learn about altruism
469
Q

Rescuers of Jews in nazi Europe and the antislavery movement are what in common

A

they were morally inclusive

470
Q

Moral exclusion justifies

A

harmful actions

471
Q

When war happens we are more concerned about deaths of

A

our in-group than maybe larger outgroup

472
Q

People and numbers of those they are helping

A

people more willing to help one person than two

473
Q

By broadening the range of people in our group

A

the boundaries between “we” and “they” fade

474
Q

If we see or read about someone helping

A

we become more likely to offer assistance

475
Q

Exceptional altruists reported

A

warm and close relationships with at least one parent who was similarly a strong moralist

476
Q

Prosocial TV models have

A

greater effects than antisocial models

477
Q

Children from less-educated homes who watched prosocial TV more

A
  • Cooperative
  • Helpful
  • Likely to state their feelings
478
Q

Prosocial media that helps aid helpful behavior

A
  1. Playing protocol video games
  2. Listening to prosocial music lyrics
479
Q

Helping increases

A

future helping

480
Q

Over-justification effect

A

When justification for an act is more than sufficient, the person may attribute their actions to the extrinsic justification rather than to an inner motive

481
Q

When children act helpfully they develop

A
  1. Helping-related values, beliefs, and skills
  2. Stratify the need for positive self-concept
  3. “Service-learning” woven into school curriculum increases, later citizen involvement
482
Q

By providing people with just enough justification to prompt a good deed

A

we may increase their pleasure in doing such deeds on their own

483
Q

To predispose more people to help in situations in which most don’t

A

pays to induce tentative positive commitment

484
Q

The first step to becoming a hero is

A

recognize social pressures that deter your bystander action

485
Q

Once people understand why the presence of bystanders inhibits helping

A

they become more likely to help in group situations

486
Q

Peace

A

A condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships.

487
Q

Conflict

A

A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals.

488
Q

Social Trap

A

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include the Prisoner’s Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons.

489
Q

The tragedy of the Commons

A

The “commons” is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the tragedy—of the commons.

490
Q

Non-Zero-Sum Games

A

Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose (also called mixed-motive situations).

491
Q

A Dilemma forms when

A

individually rewarding choices become collectively punishing

492
Q

Most people in the Prisoner’s Dilemma would

A

confess

493
Q

Punishment typically triggers

A

retaliation escalating conflict

494
Q

Societies where the Tragedy of the commons applies

A

Both collective and individualist

495
Q

When resources are not partitioned people

A

consume more than they realize

496
Q

Both social traps tempt people to

A

explain their behavior situationally and their partner’s behavior dispositionally

497
Q

How do Motive change

A
  • First: people eager to make easy money
  • Then: to minimize losses
  • Finally: To save gave and avoid defeat
498
Q

Most real-life conflicts are

A

non-zero-sum games

499
Q

Not all self-serving behavior leads to

A

collective doom

500
Q

People approach common dilemmas with

A

cooperative outlook and expect same enabling collective betterment

501
Q

Residential Stability

A

when the same families stay in a neighborhood, also strengthens communal identity and pro-community behavior

502
Q

In everyday life regulation has

A

cost

503
Q

Modern societies depend on what to pay for needed things

A

regulation laws

504
Q

Ways to resolve social dilemmas

A
  1. Est. rules that regulate self-serving behavior
  2. Make the group small
  3. To communicate
  4. Changing payoffs to reward cooperation and punish exploitation
  5. Invoking compelling altruistic norms
505
Q

In small commons, each person feels

A
  1. More responsible
  2. More effective
  3. More identified with groups’ success
506
Q

Group communication can

A
  1. Degenerate threats and name-calling
  2. Enable cooperation
  3. Forges group identity
  4. Devises group norms and pressures members to follow them
507
Q

Open, clear, forthright communication between 2 parties reduces

A

mistrust

508
Q

One who mistrust is sure to be

A

uncooperative

509
Q

Lab cooperation rises when experimenters change the payoff matrix to

A

reward cooperation and punish exploitation

510
Q

Know what is good doesn’t lead to

A

doing what is good

511
Q

To tap into social responsibility feelings

A
  1. the influence of a charismatic leader who inspires others to cooperate
  2. By defying situations in ways that invoke cooperative norms
  3. Communication
512
Q

In China those educated during the “planned economy era” make

A

more cooperative social dilemma game choices

513
Q

Mao’s Planned economy

A

An era that emphasized equal wealth distribution in China

514
Q

The “golden” rule

A

Whoever has the gold makes the rules

515
Q

Hostilities arise when

A

groups compete for scarce

  • jobs
  • Housing
  • Rehouses
516
Q

Perceived threats feed

A
  • prejudice
  • Conflict
  • Amplify perceptions of threat
517
Q

What sets the stage for conflict

A

group identity & group polarization

518
Q

Win-lose competitions produce

A
  • Intense conflict
  • Negative images of outgroup
  • Strong in-group cohesiveness & pride
519
Q

People perceive Justine as

A

equity

  • the distribution of rewards in proportion to individual’s contributions
520
Q

Those with social power usually convince themselves and others

A

that they deserve what they’re getting

521
Q

Difference between equality & equity

A
  • Equality = same outcomes
  • Equity = outcome proportional to people’s contributions
522
Q

Some non-capitalist cultures define justice as

A

equality or even fulfillment of need

523
Q

Many conflicts contain

A

a small core of truly incompatible goals and bigger problem of misperception of other’s motives and goals

524
Q

Seeds of misperception of other’s motives and goals in conflict

A
  1. Self-serving bias
  2. Self-justify
  3. Fundamental attribution error
  4. To fit preconceptions
  5. Polarize biasing tendons
  6. Groupthink tendency to perceive own group as good and outgroup as bad
  7. In-group bias
  8. Negative stereotypes of out-group
525
Q

Mirror-image perceptions

A

Reciprocal views of each other are often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.

526
Q

People in conflict often form

A

distorted image of one another

527
Q

Opposing sides in a conflict tend to

A

exaggerate their differences

- bias blind spot

528
Q

Group conflict is often fueled by

A

the illusion that the enemy’s top leaders are evil but their people are pro-us

529
Q

When tensions rise

A

rational thinking becomes more difficult

530
Q

When misperceptions accompany conflict it

A

appears and disappears as conflicts wax and wane

531
Q

The conflict goes away when

A

something enables both parties to peel away their misperceptions and work at reconciling actual differences

532
Q

When in conflict you should

A
  • Not assume that others fail to share your values and marly
  • Share and compare perceptions assuming that others perceive situations differently
533
Q

Conflict ignited by

A
  1. Social traps
  2. Competition
  3. Perceived injustices
  4. Misperceptions
534
Q

Four peacemaking strategies

A
  1. Contact
  2. Cooperation
  3. Communication
  4. Conciliation
535
Q

System justification

A

The human tendency to approve the way things are

536
Q

When tension runs high contact may

A

fuel a fight

537
Q

Contact predicts

A

tolerance

  • increased contact predicts decreased prejudice
538
Q

After segregation whites attitudes toward blacks

A

improved in areas that they mixed

539
Q

Desegregation can

A

improve racial attitudes or not

540
Q

Desegregated neighborhoods may fail to produce integrated interactions why

A

people can self-segregate

541
Q

Even within the same race likes tend to

A

self-segregate

542
Q

Many efforts to desegregate fail because

A

people feel others don’t want to desegregate

543
Q

How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice and increase support for racially quality?

A
  1. Reduces anxiety
  2. Increases empathy
  3. Humanizes others
  4. Decreasing perceived threats
544
Q

Group salience (visibility) helps bridge

A

divides between people

545
Q

We are more likely to befriend dissimilar people when

A

their our group identity is initially minimized

546
Q

Results of positive and negative contacts

A
  • positive contact boosts liking = greater effect
  • negative contacts increase disliking = more commonplace
547
Q

Equal-status contact

A

Contact on an equal basis. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should ideally be between persons equal in status.

548
Q

Superordinate goals

A

A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people’s differences from one another.

549
Q

Contact does help build peace when

A

tension is too high

550
Q

In conflicts at all levels what breeds unity

A

shared threats and common goals

551
Q

Those mistreated become more

A

cohesive

  • misery loves company
552
Q

To receive discrimination against one’s racial group is to

A

feel more bonded and identified with such

553
Q

What strengths in-group solidarity

A

Fearing extinction of one’s group

554
Q

Superordinate goals do what for conflict

A

form unifying power

  • make enemies into friends
555
Q

Cooperative learning promotes

A
  1. academic achievement
  2. improve intergroup relations
  3. Cross-racial friendships blossomed
556
Q

Being mindful of our multiple social identities enables

A

social cohesion

557
Q

The grandchildren of immigrants feel more comfortable

A

identifying with their ethnicity

558
Q

Those in the racial majority group more likely to favor

A

assimilation

559
Q

multiculturalism view in multiculturalism vs assimilation debate

A
  1. multiculturalism ensures all citizens can keep identities
  2. Can take pride in their ancestry
  3. Have a sense of belonging
560
Q

Assimilation view in multiculturalism vs assimilation debate

A
  1. multiculturalism separates people
  2. Enhanced hostility in threatening situations
  3. Prompted people to attach meaning to out-group members threatening behavior
  4. Highlighting genetic differences contribute to violent risk
561
Q

Alternate common value view on multiculturalism vs assimilation debate

A

there is no ethnicity here we are all one (all American)

562
Q

The space between multiculturalism and assimilation lies

A

diversity within unity

563
Q

Immigrant countries avoid ethnic war by

A

forging unifying ideals

564
Q

Bargain

A

Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties.

565
Q

Mediate

A

An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions.

566
Q

Arbitrate

A

Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement.

567
Q

Integrative agreement

A

Win-win agreements that reconcile both parties’ interests to their mutual benefit.

568
Q

Conflicting parties can resolve their differences by which communication methods

A
  • Bargain
  • Arbitrate
  • Mediate
569
Q

Tough bargaining may

A

lower other party’s expectations making the other side willing to settle for less or can backfire

570
Q

A time delay in barging is often

A

a lose-lose scenario

571
Q

Mediators help resolve conflict by

A

facilitating constructive communication

572
Q

Mediators tasks

A
  1. help parties rethink conflict and gain information about others’ interests
  2. Has each party identified and ranked its goals
573
Q

Communication often helps reduce

A

self-fulfilling misperceptions

574
Q

A key factor in controlled communications of conflict

A

trust

575
Q

Hearing an outgroup person criticizing their own group

A

opens people to outcrop’s perspective

576
Q

Walking together during conflict

A

engages people to increase empathy and soften boundary between them

577
Q

When mediation doesn’t work the next step is

A

arbitration

578
Q

When people know they would face an arbitrated settlement if mediation failed

A

they tried harder to resolve the problem

579
Q

The threat of arbitration fails when

A

differences seem large and irreconcilable

580
Q

GRIT

A

Acronym for “graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction”—a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions.

581
Q

GRIT aims to

A

reverse the “conflict spiral” by triggering reciprocal de-escalation

582
Q

GRIT requires one side to

A
  1. intimate a few small de-escalatory actions after announcing a conciliatory intent
  2. Then: initiator to eat. Credibility and genuine by carrying out several conciliatory acts
  3. Finally: maintaining the retaliatory capability
583
Q

GRIT’s moto

A
  • Firm: in resisting intimidation, exploitation, and dirty tricks
  • Fair: in holding to one’s moral principles and not reciprocating the others in immoral behavior
  • Friendly: in the sense that one is willing to initiate and reciprocate corporation
584
Q

Does GRIT really work?

A

YES

Social Psychology (4 decks)

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