Chapter 1 - 4 exam Flashcards
To reduce social psychologist measurement of expressed attitudes what do they use to measure and most used version of this
- Reducing bias = measures of implicit (unconscious) attitudes
- Most used: implicit association test (IAT)
What group of people have the lowest self-esteem in America and what does this show
- Asian-Americans
- they place an emphasis on self-improvement. Which may be the key to success
Mark Leary view on self-esteem
- self-esteem like a fuel gauge
- When treated to social rejection, we are motivated to have more self-esteem
Principle of aggregation
effects of an attitude more apparent when looking at persons average behavior
An integrated set of principles that are used to explain and predict events is called a
theory
Social comparison can be based on what
why is this bad
- Based on incomplete information
- Social media create a feeling of everyone is happy beside me
The belief in our superiority motivates us to… what is this called
achieve ( self-fulfilling prophecy)
two essential ingredients of social psychology experiment =
- control
- random assignment
Why is volunteering to say or do undesirable things arousing?
- Self-affirmation theory
- such acts are embarrassing, make us feel like fools - justifying actions and decisions is self-affirming
Carold Tavris & Elliot Aronson book mistakes were made (but not by me) showed
- People don’t change their minds even when proven wrong
Do narcissistic people actually hate themselves?
No - high level of narcissistic personality traits = high self-esteem
Lee Ross & Craig Anderson study and findings on belief perseverance
- tried to discredit a falsehood placed in people’s minds
- Difficult to demolish a falsehood after a person conjured a rationale for it
humans are Most motivated to maintain
self-esteem
Defensive pessimism
anticipates problems and motivates effective coping
Favorable and unfavorable evaluative reactions toward something is a description of a person’s
attitude
Representativeness
Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman on the probability of events
- = usually reality
- the conjunction of two events not more likely than either one event alone
Self-efficacy (how capable you think you can do a task ) predicts what, what is the recipe for high self-efficacy
- worker productivity
- Competence + persistence = more accomplishment = higher self-efficacy
Why does getting Botox helps depressed people
- prevents them from frowning—recover from depression more quickly
- because they find it more difficult to remember why they were sad
Self-justification (cognitive dissonance) theory
- Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions.
- For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.
Eduardo is sitting at his desk in his new kindergarten classroom and listening to his teacher. This behavior is a ______ Eduardo has learned.
role
When recalling our past,
become like observers of someone else - old you is different than today’s you
Micheal Ross & Garth Fletcher on moods and judgments
Humans don’t attribute changing perceptions to our mood shifts
world really seems different
Deciding-becomes-believing-effect =
who proved this
- overconfidence
- Robert Know & James Inkster
While watching Jeopardy, Tyler announces that he is really impressed with how smart Alex Trebek is. Tyler’s perception that Alex Trebek actually knows all the answers to the questions is an example of
the fundamental attribution error.
What are our attitudes and beliefs shaped by
External social forces
Self-presentation theory
- we all care about what others people think of us
- so we express attitudes that make us appear consistent
People’s perception of bias can be used to assess their
attitudes
What two things can affect an unrepresentative sample
- Who is able to receive
- Who is answering
How does narcissism start
How to prevent it
- Superiority rooted in childhood
- tell kids you love them not how special they are
What did the Timothy Lawson study show?
That people don’t pay as much attention to us as we think
Western literature, such as The Iliad and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, celebrates which characteristics?
independent self
Our self-esteem fuel gauge can ______.
- motivate us to self-improvement
- motivate greater sensitivity
- alert us to social rejection
brain systems that process our bodily sensations communicate with
the brain systems responsible for our social thinking.
Paul Schaffner on regression toward the average
stimulating the consequences of using praise and punishment showed how the illusion of control may infiltrate human relations
Even though reprimands were having no effect students believed they were effective
What happens when we are failing?
- We like to make fun of others who are worse
- Think its common
What matters more in a collectivist society
We
group goals and solidarity; our social responsibilities and relationships
Brennen has entered middle school and is asking himself, “Who am I?” Brennen is demonstrating the identification of his self-______.
concept
Dispositional attribution
Those who attribute poverty & employment to personal dispositions
political positions often unsympathetic to people
Culture is composed of
- Ideas
- attitudes
- traditions
False uniqueness effect
We serve our self-image by seeing our talents and moral behaviors as relatively unusual
Counterfactual thinking embodies
our feelings of luck
Who do people like more?
What are some of the traits and rewards they have?
- People like those who are confident
- even when confidence is not justified by the ability
-
Traits:
- Spoke first
- talked longer
- used a more factual tone
- Rewards:
- desirable as romantic partner
- become leaders
How have naming children changed in recent years?
- US families are more likely to give children unique names than common
- shows an increase in individualism
- most unique names in: Western US, AU, & Canada
What do we attribute successes and failures to
- Attribute success to our ability & effort
- Attribute failure to an external factor
Representativeness Heuristics
simple, efficient thinking strategies. enable us to make routine decisions with minimal effort
The 1969 research by Allan Wicker discovered that a person’s attitude did not necessarily predict his or her behavior. Specific examples Wicker found include which of the following?
- Individual descriptions of racial attitudes did not predict behaviors in an actual situation.
- Individual attitudes about church attendance did not predict their own Sunday attendance.
- Student attitudes about cheating did not predict their own cheating behaviors.
Thalamus
brain sensory switchboard
Self-presentation work to
managing impression we create
Self-serving bias appears as
- self-serving attributions
- self-congratulatory comparisons
- illusory optimism
- false consensus for one’s failings
Humans analyze behavior by
feelings about person
Planning fallacy
underestimating how long it will take to complete a task
Mark Snyder belief and how it occurs
- behavioral confirmation
- Occurs as people interact the actions of one person come to reinforce the expectations of another person
- believe others are lonely = behave less socially
Icek Ajzen & Martin Fishbein; when the measured attitude is general
- = behavior is very specific
-
“Theory of planned behavior”
- knowing people’s intended behaviors & perceived self-efficacy and control means your better at predicting behavior
Which term did sociologist Charles H. Cooley create to describe our use of how we think others perceive us as a mirror for perceiving ourselves?
The looking glass self
Cause of confirmation bias and how can we reduce it
- Cause?
- System one snap judgment = look for information consistent with our presumptions
- Fix?
- Using system 2 more
Moral ____, especially when freely chosen rather than coerced, affects moral thinking.
action
How do social comparison and self-concept affect high school students?
-
AP students who think they are better than honors
- can be threatened after graduation when a student who excelled in an average high school goes on to an academically selective university. The “big fish” is no longer in a small pond
Elizabeth Dunn on self-presentation
date nights work because encourage active self-presentation = improves mood
Social intuition can be a problem because we may ______.
- trust our memories more than we should
- predict our future incorrectly
Richard Miller view on children’s behavior
Expectations influence children’s behavior
telling children they are hard-working and kind they may live up to their labels
People sense of overconfidence lowers
as the task gets closer
What do polls tell you
Describe public opinion at moment they’re taken not voting results
Individual societies disapprove of
Conformity
“Probability neglect”
Worry about remote possibilities while ignoring high probabilities
How does the power of a social situation make people act contrary to their expressed attitudes?
Social influences shape our behavior
good people turn Nazis
What is the recipe for conceited
High self-esteem + Narcissism = conceited
Interdependent selves have not oneself but many selves that are embedded in what
what are some of these selves
- the interdependent self is embedded in social memberships.
- self-with-parents
- self-at-work
- self-with-friends
Cultural psychology is about what.
making the strange familiar and the familiar strange.
Our shared cultural encounters astonished us and convinced us that when it comes to psychological functioning, culture matters
Political overconfidence
overconfident decision-makers can wreak havoc
What does compare upward mean
When we reach one level of greatness we strive for higher
Priming
is the awakening or activating of certain associations to a word
When low in self-monitoring pros and cons
- Pro:
- Care less what others think, internally guided
- Con:
- comes across insensitive
Vanessa has felt much tension after failing statistics. She thinks of herself as really good at math and wants a future as a statistician. Vanessa is experiencing ______.
dissonance
Robert Vallone, Lee Ross,& Mark Lepper revealed
- how powerful preconceptions can be
- Perceived mediators and media is biased against their position
a basic principle of social thinking:
- People slow to deduce particular instances from a general truth
- but they are remarkably quick to infer general truth from a vivid instance
Robert Ridge & Jueffery Reber on women behavior
- a woman’s behavior seems to confirm a man’s beliefs
- he may then escalate his advances
Sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld view on historian Arthur Schlesinger showed what
That what may seem obvious is actually incorrect
When studying social psychology what are you researching?
- Social thinking
- Social relations
- Social influence
Happiness in collectivist vs individualistic cultures
-
collectivist
- positive social engagement
-
individualistic
- disengages emotions ( feeling superior )
After the winner of a hotly contested presidential primary was announced, Tina stated, “Well duh, who didn’t know that would happen?” This is an example of the
hindsight bias
explicit self-reports predict behavior for
For attitudes related to consumer behavior and support for political candidates
Cultural differences influence
attribution error
Expertise
controlled skill to auto-pilot (driving a car)
What internal factors influence our behavior
A person’s character ( disposition ) and inner attitudes
Many life tasks recipe
= Intrinstic reward + extrinsic reward
what is Illusory optimism
what is a negative to it?
- We don’t see bad things happening to us
- increase vulnerability
- *Incompetence** feels ___,
- Justin Kruger & David Dunning* view
- Incompetence feels overconfidence
- takes competence to recognize impatience
Collectivism
Giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.
What combine creates hindsight bias
- Errors in judging the future
- Errors in remembering the past
Hurt those we dislike and dislike
those we hurt = justifies cruel behavior
Especially evident when coaxed than coerced = not our fault
La Rochefoucauld’s book of Maxism:
when do one bad thing easier to do another
Ideas, behaviors, and traditions shared by a large group of people and that are transmitted from one generation to another are called.
culture transmission
To get people to focus on inner convictions
make them self aware
Cathy McFarland & Michael Ross study on memories
as relationships change we revise our recollections of people
Collectivistic cultures promote a greater sense of
belong & integration between self and others
What does the right hemisphere of your brain do and why is it important
- Its the part of our brain that lets us recognitive ourselves
What cognitive dissociates theory focuses on
what induces a desired action
only enough reward not too much
False uniqueness effect serves what
This series our self-image
Why is optimism better than pessimism
- Optimism beats pessimism in promoting self efficacy ,Health, and well-being
- Most believe happiness in the future belief creates present happiness
- Pessimist die sooner
Jack Brehm (first dissonance experiment):
after choice is made we prefer our choice than other option
How does the human brain think
on a two-level system
- intuitive
- deliberate
Education could reduce what and how
- Education could reduce our vulnerability to certain errors
- BY:
- Train people to recognize likely source of error in social intuition
- Set up stats courses get everyday problems of social and logical judgment
- Illustrating it’s richly with concrete vivid and anecdotes from everyday life
- Teach memorable and useful slogans
What is more compelling to humans Powerful anecdotes or statistical information
Powerful anecdotes more compelling than statistical information
Goal and Consequences of self handicap
- Goal -
- have a self-protective aim
- Consequences -
- Students who self-handicap end up with lower GPAs
When people think well of us what happens
We think well of ourselves
Robyn Dawes:
we should teach how to process social information
Recipe for shaping self
Shaping self = Moral acts + Harmful acts
Are humans mostly accurate in reality
Yes mostly accurate in reality
but biases and logical flaws
Richard Feynman on comparing the theories
a different sets of assumptions can lead to the same principle
What 2 things cant dissonance theory explain
- Dissonance theory can’t explain attitude change that occurs without dissonance
as we act and reflect we develop more readily accessible attitudes to our future behavior
- Dissonance theory doesn’t explain the overjustification effect
Self-perception is accurate when what
- when causes of behavior are conspicuous
- correct explanations fit our intuition.
People regret things ___
What is the most common regret in adults
they didn’t do more than things they did do
The most common regret in adults = not taking education more seriously
Our beliefs and expectations powerfully affects
how we mentally construct events
Consequences = prisoner of our own thought patterns
When does individualism flourish: when people experience
- Affluence
- Mobility
- Urbanism
- Economic prosperity
- Mass media
- Economies shift from manufactory to information and service industries
What is error in budgeting and who discovered it
We think we will save more money than we do
Jonanna Peetz & Roger Buehler
What do theories do
- summarize
- imply testable predictions = hypothesis
Mark Leary view on high self-monitoring
self they know different from the self they show
Who created the idea of self-efficacy and why
Albert Bandura
to show power of positive thinking
Self-fulfilling prophecy
beliefs that lead to their own fulfillment
What is the relationship between ourselves and the world around us?
Bidirectional
sense of ourselves affects how we respond to others
and
others help shape our sense of self
Individualistic western world view on attribution error
people, not situations cause events
Internal exclamations more socially approved
Is self presentation always conscious what is its pros
- Not always conscious effort
- Pros: improve mood
Students that score lower academically
more likely to overestimate
who thought we have 2 brain system
Daniel Kahneman thinking fast and slow book
When evaluating research studies what potential biases influence
- unrepresentative samples
- question order
- response options
- question-wording
James Laird on expressions and attitudes
smiling makes you happy, frowning makes you sad
IAT test shown what
- Implicit biases are pervasive
- people differ in implicit bias
- people are often unaware of their implicit bias
self-schemas that make up our self-concepts help us
- organize
- retrieve our experiences.
- (most like to remember Ts birthday cause it’s close yours than Kam )
Elizabeth Loftus & Mark Klinger (cognitive scientists) believed
unconscious not as smart as once believed
When are you most prone to impact bias
after negative event
Social cognitive studies proved
- information processing powers impressive for efficiency and adaptiveness
- but vulnerable to
- predictable errors
- miss judgment
Most participants in experiments are who
College students
weird - 15% of pop
- Western
- Educatued
- Industrialized
- Rich
- Democratic
Brad Bushman & Roy Baumeister on narcissism and agression
people with high self-esteem & narcissism were most aggressive (especially publicly)
Stockbroker overconfidence:
stocks = confidence game, equal chance of randomly selected stock in an investment analyst stock
More overconfident = more money put in
Even when loses digs in heels
What is impression management
Continually managing impressions we create to fit in
Student overconfidence
The more confident a student was, the more likely to fail
would stop studying
John Bargh on priming
Linked primes to bells that only mental butlers can hear
Maria has never liked coffee but loves caffeine drinks. She is displaying a negative ______ toward coffee.
attitude
Daniel Gilbert and Timothy Wilson view on predicting our feelings
we miswant
what seems good and what is good are two different things
Steven Berglas & Edward Jones study found
People are more likely to take drugs to suppress intelligence, in fear they won’t do as well next time
What do hypotheses do
- To test a theory
- Give directions to research, sometimes giving investigators things they might not have considered
- Make theories practical
Attempts to change behavior by changing attitudes =
often fail
People with low self-esteem experience more of what
- anxiety
- loneliness
- eating disorders
- Negative view - don’t like to hear positive things about negative experiences
When high in self monitoring pros and cons
- Cons:
- less committed to relationships
- dissatisfied in marriages
- Pros:
- more connections online
What are a narcissists thought process
Narcissists don’t care about others
(think they are better than everyone)
Albert Mannes & Don Moore on overconfidence
When thinking we know how something will go we miss the mark
Beliefs about sexual preference, marriage, and education all reflect a person’s
values
A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people’s social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations is called
bevaioral confirmation
What were the 1980s Marxists criticisms of social psychology
- Marxists called attention to competitive
- individualist bias - that conformity was bad and individualism is good
How do you maintain a positive self-image, how does a self-image change over time
- Attribute success to their ability & effort = helps maintain positive self-image
- We see are past selves more critical than we see our present
- we see ourselves getting better in the future
Do self-fulfilling prophecies color our personal relationships?
Negative expectations of a person leads us to be extra nice to that person ->
that person acts nice in return ->
disconfirming our expectations
Who studies were sense of self arises
Neuroscientist
Daniel Batson theory and what does it mean
Moral hypocrisy
appearing moral while avoiding the cost of being so
Ivan Hernandez & Jesse Lee Preston view on confirmation bias
Thought reduces confirmation
Self-perception theorist Daryl Bam
it boils down to personal loyalties and preferences
Katherine Burns Vanghan & John Lanzetta study on expressions and attitudes
imitating others’ expressions help us know what they feel
We naturally and unconsciously mimic others - makes use of emotional contagion
People with high + secure self-esteem =
engage in low self justification
Social comparisons
Others help define the standard by which we define ourselves
Controlled reflective, deliberate, and conscious is system 1 or 2
System 2
Self-perfection & dissonance theory =
contradict each other -
can use both to justify findings
Remedies for overconfidence
- Be careful of others dogmatic statements: confidence ≠ competence
- Two strageties:
- Prompt feedback: receiving clear daily feedback
- Think about wrong: Consider disconfirming info
The looking-glass self was created by who and says what
Charles H. Cooley
How we think others perceive as a mirror for ourselves
Self control is like a ___:
Self control is like a muscle
it can be strengthened
Robert Feldman & Thomas Prohaska and student expectations upon teachers
- expectations can affect both students and teachers
- Students who expected a good teacher perceive them as good and learned more
Implicit association test
use this reaction time to measure how quickly people associate concepts
Tversky & Kaneman on tests
- We don’t recognize regression toward the average
- Students who earn low scores on first exam more likely to improve
- Nature operates in such a way that we often feel punished for rewarding others and rewarded for punishing them - positive reinforcement for doing right things usually more effective
What is our self-esteem most threatened by
close friends and family
Self-serving attributions
attributing positive outcomes to oneself
negative outcomes to something else
High self-esteem (sense of self-worth) fosters what
- initiative
- resilience
- pleasant feelings
Automatic thinking includes what 4 concepts
- Schemes
- emotional reactions
- expertise
- snap judgment
Self-esteem
A person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth.
_____ theory assumes that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to ourselves.
Cognitive dissonance
Dissonance vs self-percection
Dissonance better theory in terms of having attitude and behaviors disagree doesn’t produce arousal
Miss attribution is more likely to occur
- when men are in a position of power
- 23% of women forced into sexual acts, 3% of men never forced women
Illusory Correlation
When we expect to find significant relationships, we easily associate random events
low expectations don’t boom
a capable child and high expectations do not transform a student
Expectations = Boost low achievers
Reason for attribution error
find causes when look for them
Our perceptions of others are
more accurate than bias
Difference between self-efficacy & self-esteem
which is more effective at better performance
- Self-efficacy: When you believe you can do something
- Self-esteem: When you like yourself overall
- Self-efficacy feedback leads to better performance than self-esteem feedback
How does priming influence thoughts and actions
Ones thought can influence another or action
What is a good slogan for self-serving bias
It’s us when good things happen, and it’s others when bad things happen
what reveals the depth of our concern for self-image.
- Self-serving bias
- false modesty
- self-handicapping
When peoples perceptions about the past manipulated we
construct false memories
Micheal Gazzaniga study
patients with brain hemispheres removed = fabricate and believe exclamations of puzzling behaviors
Humans can be described as what in regards to behavior and attitude
Humans are powerless machines
what is unreal can turn real
Self-concept
the specific beliefs by which you define yourself
Depleting self-control =
more likely to do meaningful activities
2 IAT criticisms
- Can’t assess and compare individuals
- Dispute how well race IAT predicts discrimination
false modesty phenomenon:
display lower self-esteem than privately feel
Embodied cognition
The mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgments.
physical sensations prime our social judgment
Social Cognition
The way in which people think about other people
Attribution theorist view on perspective and situational awareness
- observe others differently than ourselves
- Environment commands our attention = when we act
- Person center of our attention = when others act
Robert Rosenthal theory and what it is
Experimenter bias
Research for participants sometimes live up to what they believe experimenters predict of them
A major advantage of experiments over correlational studies is ______.
- the cause can be inferred
- Random assignment is possible.
A research study has found that young adults with low self-esteem had trouble escaping a tough ______.
childhood
Social Psychology
studies how situations influence us
How do you social psychologist organize ideas and findings
Into theories – scientific shorthand
Self-presentation
refers to our wanting to present a desired image both to an external audience (other people) and to an internal audience (ourselves).
Narcissism
Having an inflated sense of self
What is the most important aspect of yourself?
Your self
Susan Andersen and Serena Chen believed what
We change our faces ( personalities ) to match our social situations
Is there a link between success and self-esteem
no
Progressive social psychologists, Lee jussim view
discriminate against conservative psychologists by saying the reality is not
How to reduce dissonance =
upgrading chosen alternative
downgrading unchosen option
Facial-feedback effect
The tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.
Are more people optimistic or pessimistic
Optimistic
Bertram Malle view on perspective and situational awareness
- actor-observer difference minimal
- When our actions feel intentional and admirable = attribute to one good reason
- When we behave bad = situation
What do self-schemas affect?
affect how we
- perceive
- remember
- evaluate other people and ourselves
What is behavior predicted by
Behavior predicted by implicit and explicit measures + situation
3 of the fundamental principles in social psychology?
- We socially construct our world view.
- Social behavior is shaped by biology.
- Social behavior is shaped by others and ourselves.
Social psychologist
what it reveals about normal information processes (map of every day social thinking)
In Savitsky and Gilovich’s research on nervousness and public speaking, which of the following is true?
Informed felt best
who made cognitive dissonance theory
Leon Festinger
Attribution researchers common problem with our attributions
- we often underestimate the impact of the situation
- overestimate the extent to which it reflects the individual’s traits & attitude
Failures of self-control appear when
appear when doing something taxing, difficult, or unpleasant
Rob Holland study on priming
Dutch students exposed to certain all-purpose cleaners quicker to identify cleaning-related words and activities
Dawes belief on False consensus occurs
because we generalize a limited sample that includes ourself
Impact bias
overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events
Illusion intuition appears in how we
- take in
- store
- retrieve social information
C.S Lewis view on self-knowledge
the one thing we know for certain is ourselves Yet sometimes we think we know, but our inside information is wrong.
Independent variable
variable that stays the same
Internal cause / Dispositional attribution
someone’s disposition or mental state
Attitudes-follow-behavior effect stronger when
people felt some choice + actions had foreseeable consequences
Most people see themselves as better than average person on three dimensions:
- subjective
- socially desirable
- common dimensions
Why self-handicap?
To protect self-image
fearing failure, people give themselves an external reason why they didn’t do well.
Try to hide your flaws from people, make them
like you less
undermining your self-esteem
Psychologist Herbert Simon
to cope with reality we simplify
Collectivistic vs individualistic culture on self-esteem
- Collectivist culture =
- self-esteem malleable rather than stable
- Do better when failing
- Individualistic cultures =
- self-esteem personal and less relational
- Do better when succeeding
Camera perspective bias
- Camera position affects the way we view coerced vs genuine confessions
- Camera on suspect = genuine
- Camera on detective = coerced
Most confession video tapes on suspect - Almost 100% conviction rate
What affects moral thinking, who thought of it
moral actions, especially when chosen, affect moral thinking
Jonathan Freedman
When does the “medial prefrontal cortex, become more active
When you think of yourself
Research has shown that our self-esteem motivation is a motivator in increasing our
self-serving bias
People miss perceive random events
as confirming their belief
If believe correlation exists = more likely to notice and recall confirming instances
Theories that prove actions actually seem to affect attitude theory
- cognitive dissonce
- self-perception theory
Lee Jussim, Stacy Robustelli, & Thomas Cain study on teacher expectation and student performance
75% correlation between teachers expectations and student future achievement
A theory is an integrated set of principles that are used to
explain and predict observed events
Theory that proves actions only seem to affect attitude theory
self-presentation theory
Social scientist pre-segregational schools showed
if we legislate moral action = affect heartfelt attitudes
what is Julie Norem theory on pessimism
defensive pessimism
Saves us from the harms of unrealistic optimism
Students not so confident do better than confident students - cause they study harder
Richard Grunberger
prevented from saying what they believe = people consciously made effort to believe what they said
Kristin Neff strategy on maintain self-esteem
Self-compassion
leaving behind comparisons with others and instead of treating ourselves with kindness
one of the most potent human biases is
Self-serving attributions
Social judgment for happy and unhappy people
- Unhappy people:
- Cons: more so focused and boating
- Pros: motivates intense thinking
- Happy people:
- Pros: more trusting, loving and responsive, see the world brighter
Robert Merton theory
Self-fulfilling prophecies
What were 1980s feminist criticisms of social psychology?
biases to the conservativeness of scientists who favored biological interpretation of gender differences and social behavior
Terrance Mitchell & Leigh Thompson on the construction of positive memories
Rosy retrospection
Construction of positive memories brightens our recollections
How do humans judge events
Based on how easily they come to mind
people are more afraid of plane crashes because they hear about them more than car crashes
Misinformation Effect
people incorporate the misinformation into their memories
Micheal Conway & Micheal Ross view on self-improvement
having put so much time, effort, and money into self-improvement people often think they get better than they actually do
Cons to the I knew it all along phenomenon
- Builds arrogance
- blame decision-makers for more obvious bad decisions than good
What are evolutionary psychologists view on humans interacts?
inherited human nature predisposes us to behave in ways that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce
Collectivist worldview on attribution error
Collectivist worldview = more sensitive to the importance of situations
Less inclined to assume others behavior correspond to their traits
Julie Woodzicka and Marianne LaFrance study on predicting our feelings showed what
we misjudge our emotions
Illusory thinking comes from where
= comes from useless heuristics that aid are survival
Blindsight
Lost visual cortex - just knew theater stick was vertical or horizontal
Mark Snyder & William Swann study and results
if we think about attitudes before acting, would we be truer to ourselves?
Attitudes predicted behaviors only for those who are first induced to remember attitudes
The more significant and unlikely the event
more intense the counterfactual thinking
Peoples intelligence scores correlated
with vulnerability to many different thinking biases
Andy Marten study on killing bugs
more likely to kill bugs after the first time
Jennifer crocker backfire to actively pursuing self-esteem
Students whose self-worth based on external sources experienced more stress, anger, drug use, etc.
Confirmation bias helps explain what
William Swann helps prove this by showing
- Helps explain why self image is stable
- students seek, explicit, and recall feedback that confirms beliefs about themselves.
People choose close ones that boost own self you even if low confidence
The study of social behavior is built on what
biological and social factors
we build on basic sciences and elevate to a higher level
Diane Holmberg & John Holmes on memories
where is your current view on your partner is the worst your memories are
Most terrorists, and gang leaders have what
High self-esteem
Who found Collectivist societies become more individualistic in short time
Steven Heine
Timothy Wilson view on wisdom and illusions of self-analysis
Analyzing feelings can actually make our judgments less accurate.
Self-perception theory
actions are self revealing:
Correlational pros and cons
- Pros
- examining important variables in natural settings
- Cons
- ambiguous interpretation of cause-and-effect
For attitude to leave to change behavior
Goals must be set
Neuroscientists identified brain centers that produce implicit reactions -
amygdala active when automatically evaluating social stimuli
Statistical intuition and fears are driven by
emotions
Dramatic events awaken us to real risk
Practicing self-control in one area
= improved self control overall
A concept under confirmation bias and what it is
Ideological echo chamber
choosing something that you know aligns with your thoughts
Why is it important to listen to criticism
the recipe for success in life
optimism to sustain hope + pessimism to motivate concerned
Who created misinformation effect what is it
Elizabeth Loftus
Miss information produces false memories of supposed child sexual abuse
Individualism
The concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
What are the 3 sections under social psychology
- Social influence
- Social cognition
- Social interaction
Robert Cialdini:
additional reasons might never have existed had choice not been made
Controlled variable
the one being mesured
How do peoples beliefs and attitudes change from then to present day D.R. Wixon & Jammes Laird on this concept
George Vaillant:
- Peoples whose beliefs or attitudes change and says they have always felt this
- Rosy Retrospection they recall mildly pleasant events more favorably than they experienced them way
- D.R. Wixon & Jammes Laird: the speed, magnitude, and certainty the students revised their past was striking
- George Vaillant: maturation makes liars of us
Confirmation Bias
eager to verify our beliefs but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove them
Western cultures (individualisms) thoughts on identity
- self-contained
- personal traits & goals
System 1
functions automatically and out of our awareness (often called “intuition” or a “gut feeling”)
A century ago, William James identified we infer our emotions by observing our bodies and our ______.
behaviors
False Consensus effect
we find support for our positions by overestimating how much others agree
The tendency to exaggerate your ability to have foreseen the results after you learn the outcome is called the
hindsight bias ( I knew it all along phenomenon )
Europe has given researchers a major theory of _____.
social identity
Belief Perseverance
Persistence of one’s initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one’s belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.
What are our two brain systems
- System 1: automatic - influences more of our actions
- System 2: conscious
When do Attitudes Predict Behavior
- when other influences on what we say and do are minimal
- attitude is specifics the behavior
- attitude is potent
Antonia Abbey and misattribution
men more likely to attribute women’s friendliness to sexual interest
Misattribution: can contribute as sexual harassment or rape
we managing impressions by
Express attitudes that match our actions + insecurity
Tom is an extrovert and therefore he loves going to parties and talking to people. Tom’s personality has influenced his behavior, an example of behavior being changed by ______.
Internal forces
Self-monitoring
act like social chameleons
they use self-presentation to adjust their behavior in response to external situations
social psychologists job
social psychologists make it their business to explain people’s explanations
Our judgments of people depend on how we explain their behavior
Mindlessness can be described as and why
adaptive
frees our mind to work on other things
Most common error in predicting our behavior
Planning fallacy
Investigating what areas of the brain become active during altruistic behaviors is an example in the social psychology subfield of
Social neuroscience
What is affected when we engage in effortful self-control?
- Energy reserves
- Blood sugar
Amy Wrzesniewski & Barry Schwartz on over justification
helping people focus on intrinsic meaning of work boost work quality and vocational & financial success
Tory Higgin study on “saying becomes believing”
people adjust message to listener, and believe altered message
Megumi thinks that everyone from the United States is arrogant, but she loves her American roommate and thinks the roommate is humble. If Megumi recognizes that these two cognitions are inconsistent, she might feel the tension of ______.
cognitive dissonance
What is the personality of those with high self-esteem?
more obnoxious, interrupt, talk to rather than with
Sandra Murray view on love
Love helps create its presumed reality
Hopeful optimists and partner = perceive each other as engaging constructively
System 2
requires our conscious attention and effort.
Implicitly
System one, without consciously knowing or declaring that we know
Asia, Africa, Central & South America (collectivism ) base identity on
Identity based on social, connections with others
Situational attribution:
tend to adopt political positions that support people
Which of the following are reasons why individuals construct their social reality?
Multiple select question.
As humans we like to attribute behavior to some cause.
As humans we like to have events be predictable.
As humans we prefer complicated explanations over simple ones.
As humans we like to have order in our world.
As humans we like to attribute behavior to some cause.
As humans we like to have events be predictable.
As humans we like to have order in our world.
Many people most potent social indoctrination =
brainwashing
To change habits through persuasion =
alter peoples attitudes towards specific practices
Why do we do self-serving attributions and how does it negatively affect us
Why we do this? Activates brain areas associated with reward & pleasure
- : Contribute to martial discord, worker dissatisfaction, & bargaining impasses
Automatic
impulsive, effortless, and without our awareness—System 1
Attribution theory: Attribute peoples behavior
to internal and external causes
People are more inclined to attribute behavior to stable personality or situations
Danial Kahneman & Amos Tversky on overconfidence
people tend to be overconfidence even when something is on the line. 30% of time correct answer not in range but people felt 98% confident
Asked people air distance between New Delhi & Beijing
What are bias Blindspot and some of its consequences?
Bias blind spot: We are bias in seeing our own bias
Consequences during conflicts - we are objective, everyone else bias
When Collectivist (eastern) meets Individualistic (western) cultures does, self-concept become more individualized?
yes, Collectivist societies become more individualistic in short time
Jorge always tells people he’s not religious, but he has a Christian bumper sticker on his car. If he were to feel uncomfortable due to the inconsistency between his stated attitude and his behavior, he would experience ______.
cognitive dissonance
Discovering how little you know may what
may moderate opinion
Collectivism countries people can be described as more what
self-critical & focus less on positive self-view
Mark Leary view of religion and sense of self
religious or spiritual meditation practices seek to prune the self’s egocentric preoccupations, by quieting the ego, reducing its attractions to material pleasures, and redirecting it
Misattribution
Mistakenly attributing behavior to the wrong source.
What is the most researched topic in psychology?
The sense of self
Implicit attitudes predict behavior for
For attitudes formed early in life (race and gender attitudes)
External inducements is
insufficient to justify behavior
Richard Nisbett and Takahiko Masuda (2003) concluded what from their studies
East Asians think more holistically—perceiving and thinking about objects and people in relationship to one another and to their environment.
Behavioral Confirmation
beliefs about social world can induce others to confirm those biases
Heuristics
simple, efficient thinking strategies. enable us to make routine decisions with minimal effort
Roy Baumeister view on self-control
Self’s capacity for action has limits
Terror management theory
humans must find a way to manage their overwhelming fear of health
Alfred North Whitehead: civilization advances
by extending number of operations we can perform without thinking about them
Inferring traits
often believe people’s actions are indicated of intention and dispositions
What are two implications to timothy Wilson’s duel attitude system
- Psychological inquiry - self-reports are untrustworthy
- Report doesn’t have to be true, personal testimonies are persuasive
Anthony Greenwald (Social psychologist) concept and view
necessary to remember events happened in a desired manner
“totalitarian ego”: revise is pasta soup present views
Under reports bad behavior, over reports good behavior
Good impressions is a way to gain what
social and material rewards
Conscious self-prevention is
Self-monitoring
Festinger & J.Merrill Carlsmith door knod study results
having insignificant justification for actions = would experience more discomfort -> more motivated to believe in what they had done
Demonstrations of how people create false beliefs do not prove
that all beliefs are false (although to recognize falsification, it helps to know how it’s done).
Social psychologists have identified how behavior affects our attitudes through ______.
self-perception
cognitive dissonance
self-presentation
What is the relationship between negative outcomes and low self-esteem
No link between self-esteem & negative outcomes
Easy imagined, cognitively available events influence
our experiences of guilt, regret, frustration & relief
Imagining worse alternatives make us feel better
Selective exposure
The tendency to seek information and media that agree with one’s views and to avoid dissonant information.
Social neuroscience is a combination of which two perspectives?
social biology
How is Jonathom brown & Keith Dutton view on self-esteem different than Jenifer Crocker & Connie Wolfe
They are reverse views, Brown and Dutton think self-esteem comes first then the spefic appreciation second while Crocker and Wolfie believe specific appreciation comes first then self-esteem
When we act contrary to our defined attitudes, we are using ___
theory.
dissonance
Jennifer Crocker and Lora Park on pursing self-esteem
those who purse self-esteem, seeking to become richer lose sight of what makes them happy
Elanor Williams & Thomas Gilovich and the idea we think we are better than others
people really believe their self-enchanting self-assessments
How do people with high or low self-esteems handle threats to self-esteem
People with high self-esteem: compensate to threat
People with low self-esteem: blame themselves or give up
Why are behavior and expressed attitudes differ =
both subjects to other influences
A correlation has been found of low self-esteem in people who have been faced with ______.
poverty as a child
personal sexual abuse
parental drug use
William Ward & Herbert Jenkins study on illusory thinking
Easy to see a correlation where doesn’t exist
participants confident in made-up relationship between cloud seeding in rain
When attitudes are weak what is similar
Attitudes weak = like someone observing us from outside
Joseph Forgas on moods and judgments
struck by how peoples memories and judgment change with the color of their mood
In good mood look at past as good
In bad mood look at past as bad
Advocates of “intuitive management” say we should
use system 1 more
Obvious ways values enter psychology
When choosing a research topic, types of people who what to study psychology, and as a research topic itself
Self-schemas
mental templates by which we organize our worlds
Edgar Schein strategy of brainwashing
Start small and build tactic of brainwash effective
In a study including 53 nations, the average self-esteem score was
above the midpoint in every country
Other self-handicap methods
Reduce preparation
give opponents an advantage
perform poorly at beginning
not try as hard as they could
Why do we make the attribution error?
ignore powerful situational determinants
how can the Attitudes of teachers and students be described
Attitudes of teachers and students are bidirectional
Schemas
mental concepts that intuitively guide our perceptions
Another name for the research in everyday situations is called
field research
To encourage behavior =
encourage intrinsic effort
Robert Vallone study and david dunning view on it
84% of students wrong twice as often about self predictions of future
David Dunning: others can predict our future better than ourselves
Representativeness may lead to
discounting other information
Illusory correlation -Gambling
People who believe they can predict or control situation of chances = more confident
People like control, when no control act to create a sense of predictability
Moods fill our
thinking: world brighter when happy, world gloomy when sad
Self-serving bias
tendency to perceive oneself favorably
Jaquon is having trouble with math class in school. Jaquon’s teacher keeps telling him he is a smart boy. Eventually, Jaquon starts to improve his grades. This is an example of “saying becomes ______.”
believing
Collectivism societies disapprove of
Egotism
Emotional reactions
instantaneous, neural shortcut takes information from thalamus to amygdala
What is common in marriages
people think they do more than other
49% of married men, said they did most to half of child care while, only 31% of women agreed
Jonathon Brown & Keith Dutton view on selft esteem
People with high self-esteem value their looks, abilities
who is more likely to make attribution error
Intellectual is more likely to make attribution error
Those with Social power Control conversations leading underlings to overestimate their knowledge and intelligence
Our self-concept makes use of our ability to know ______.
who we are
our gender behaviors
our previous experiences
Edward Diener & Mark Wallbom study showed
mirrors make people self aware which make us more likely to follow moral code
Western cultures (individualisms) believe what makes life enriching
If you believe in power of personal control
What does perspective is reality mean
there is an objective reality but we always view it through the lens of our beliefs and values
Among sibling relationships, the threat to self-esteem is greatest for an
older child with a highly capable younger brother or sister
Richard Nisbett & Lee Ross theory
lab procedures overestimate our intuitive powers
3 theories of why our behavior affects our attitudes
- Self-presentation: impression management
- Self-justification: cognitive dissonance
- Self-perception
Timothy Wilson system is called
Duel attitude system: our automatic (implicit) attitude regards things different than our conscious (explicit) attitude
Implict change slower than explicit
Which of the examples below would be affected by social influences?
The release of serotonin in the brain causing happiness or sadness
Beliefs about whether same-sex relationships are acceptable
Physiological reactions to fear (fight versus flight)
Attraction to small versus large body size in potential mates
Beliefs about whether same-sex relationships are acceptable
Attraction to small versus large body size in potential mates
According to research, differences such as preferred body size in mates, definitions of social justice, and whether you are expressive or reserved are based primarily on ______.
Culture
predictors of healthy behavior, living longer, and good performance at work
Self control is
Framing pros and cons
Framing research can persuade people towards beneficial decisions and also help marketers sell products - Burger is 70% lean 30% fat
self-perception theory
The theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us—by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs.
The civil rights movement of the 1960s is an example of the change brought about by ______ movements.
social
Allan Wicker view on behavior and attitudes
peoples expressed attitudes didn’t predict varying behaviors
Jennifer Crocker & Connie Wolfe view on self-esteem
we feel gapped about the domains (looks, smarts) important to our self-esteem
How do we view the social world
through our beliefs, attitude, & values
“Yeah, I know he was assigned that position for the debate, but, you know, I think he really believes it.” This type of thinking illustrates
the fundamental attribution error.
People often construct their social world to explain behavior and make it seem ___, ____ & ____
Orderly, predictable, controllable
Individualism-collectivism varies how
varies across political views and regions
Political views
Conservatives = economic individualists + Moral collectivists Liberals = economic collectivists + Moral individualists
Regions
Native Hawaiians and deep south = collectivistic
West states = collectivistic
Rich white males more individualistic
how can you improve your self-predictions?
Be more realistic on how long it took in the past or estimate how long each step will take
Studies of “ affective forecasting “ showed
people have greatest difficulty predicting the intensity & duration of future emotions
Social interaction
looking good, well not too good - especially in collectivist culture
Over justification effect occurs -
when given unnecessary reward beforehand an obvious effort to control behavior
Sara spends many dollars annually on clothes, cosmetics, and her hair to make a good impression on others. Sara’s actions provide an example of self-______.
presentation
Historically, sometimes soldiers must complete actions they think are unethical. If they rationalize and adjust their attitudes to fit their actions, and both the actions and attitudes continue to influence each other, this could eventually lead to ______.
moral numbness
John Bargh on Priming experiments
Priming experiments = applied to every day life
the correlation between predicted feelings and actual feelings was what
.28
What did Kenneth Savitsky and Thomas Gilovich test and prove
Illusion of transparency
(68%) believed that they appeared more nervous than did their partner.
those informed about the illusion-of-transparency phenomenon felt better about their speeches and their appearance than did those in the control and reassurance conditions
What is the “medial prefrontal cortex,” and what does it do
a neuron path located in the cleft between your brain hemispheres just behind your eyes, seemingly helps stitch together your sense of self.
Available heuristics make us sensitive to
unfairness, struggles more memorable than advantages
People’s behaviors and attitudes depend greatly on what
Their social realities, our cultures help define our situation
Experience has taught us that when everything is going great, something will go wrong, and that when life is dealing us terrible blows, we can usually look forward to better things. This is most likely due to
regression toward the average.
Why we study attribution errors
- Purpose is to reveal how we think about ourselves and others
- Illusory thinking is byproduct of mines strategy for simplifying complex information
- Humanitarianism = people should not always be blamed for their problems (Thomas Gilovich & Richard Eibach)
- We are mostly unaware of them and can benefit from greater awareness
Six examples of how the interplay between our sense of self and our social worlds
Spotlight effect
Illusion of transparency
Social surroundings affect our self-awareness
Self-interest colors our social judgement
Self-concern motivates our social behavior
Social relationships help define our sense of self
Behavioral Confirmation
beliefs about social world can induce others to confirm those biases
Psychological research on constructing memories
humans reconstruct past by using current emotions and expectations to combine information fragments
Joachim Krüger & David Funder view and how it relates to lee jussim
social psychology’s preoccupation with human foibles knees balanced with a more positive view of human nature
Lee Jussim: peoples perception of one another are surprisingly accurate
Kruglanski & Gigerenzer describe our thinking as
intuitive and deliberate
The powers of intuition
We know more than we think
Thinking = Automatic + controlled
Auto: offscreen
Rosy Retrospection
they recall mildly pleasant events more favorably than they experienced them
What is an example of dissonance after decision
Desirable features of what you rejected and undesirable features of what you’ve chosen
Regression Toward the Average
The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward their average.
Unanticipated rewards =
doesn’t diminish intrinsic interest
What is “seeing everyone else’s highlight reels”
A reseach phenenomon that showed social media user socially compared themselves to others on the site were more likely to be depressed
Behavioral sciences assume
modes of thought and behavior are adaptive
Sondra is very shy and she hates giving speeches in class. This is an example of Sondra’s behavior being influenced by ______.
personality
attitudes
culture
situational forces
personality
How do politicians benefit from question-wording
Ording, response, and wording affects enable political manipulators to use surveys to show public support for their views
How does language and ads change from Korean to us students
US students view: used as self expression
Ads: unique and special as possible
Korean students view: allows communication
Shared traditions and practices
Realtionship between influence and preferences
Bi directional relationship between influence and preferences
what leads to self-persuasion after acting contrary to one’s attitude
Dissonance = uncomfortably arousing
Social influence
The way a person’s behavior can be affected by the presence of others
one Self-presentation strategy =
Humblebrag (normally unsuccessful )
Social psychology’s most important lesson concerns
the influence of our social environment.
Due to ______, people become more likely to rate someone more warmly and behave more generously after holding a warm drink.
embodied cognition
Is self-serving bias universal, or are people in collectivistic cultures immune?
Collectivistic cultures associate themselves with positive words
Likely to self enhance by believing they are better than others in individualistic domains
Methods of sociologists research
correlational - Asking whether two or more factors are naturally associated versus experimental - Manipulating some factors to see its affect on others
Role
A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave.
Psychologist William James and self-perception
infer our emotions by observing our bodies and behavior
How do most people see themselves, how does this compare to people who do violet crimes
Most people see themselves as better than average
Even men convicted of violet crimes saw themselves better than most
Self-serving bias stronger for traits that are more what what makes these qualities unique
Self-serving bias stronger for traits that are more subjective or difficult to measure
Subjective qualities - give more leeway in constructing our own definition of success
Jack Croxton study on
miss information effect affects our recall of social as well as physical events
Students informed person they talk to like them recalled person’s behavior as positive while those who heard person dislike them recalled person as negative
Mrs. Anderson teaches her first-grade students the national anthem. This practice of publicly promoting patriotism in individual schoolchildren is an example of the power of ______.
a social movement
What do daniel gilbert and timothy wilson explain why we over predict how long it will take to get over a negative event
Impact bias, and Neglect speed & power of coping mechanisms
Fundamental Attribution Error theory
The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others’ behavior.
Snap judgments
Chance at guessing (first impression)
Social psychologist and the limits of intuition
error-prone hindsight and capacity for illusion
Spotlight effect
Thinking others are paying more attention to us than they really are
Self control exertion -> leads to
self control failure (especially in Western societies
When emotionally aroused more likely to
make system one snap decisions using stereotypes - overall happy or sad
two of social psychology criticisms
- Trivial because it documents the obvious
- dangerous because its findings could manipulate people
James Uleman view on spontaneous trait inference
1/10 of a second exposure to someone’s face led to the spontaneous inference of personality traits
Social judgment recipe
Social judgment = efficient information processing + feelings
Languages promote what external attributions
Languages promotes external attributions
Spanish = instead of I was late, the clock caused me to be late
Google Books Ngram viewer showed
increasing individualism in english and 8 other languages
Psychological Association ethical standards
- Tell participants enough to get informed consent
- Don’t use deception to get consent
- Protect participants from harm or discomfort
- Confidentiality
- Debrief participants afterward with deception used as well
Social interactions
The positive and negative aspects of people relating to others
Self-perception theory suggests we infer our emotions by observing our bodies and our
behavior
Optimism
positive approach to life
Much of our social information processing is
who thought this
automatic
John Bargh & Tanya Chartrand
Dexter is studying teens at the mall. Dexter is conducting ______.
field research ()
Unnoticed events can suddenly what
prime are thinking and behavior
When everyone in a population under investigation has an equal chance of being included in the survey, it is called a
Random sample
Self-fulfilling prophecy
beliefs that lead to their own fulfillment
What are the two major advantages of experimental research over correlational studies?
Random assignment is possible.
Causal relationships can be inferred.
Trying hard doesn’t
eliminate thinking biases
External cause / situational attribution
something about the situation
According to the principle of aggregation, Jane’s strong sense of religious belief and spirituality indicate that she would ______.
never miss a weekly worship
Why do things take short to get over than we think
your general happiness sometime after an event would be influenced by “two things: (a) the event, and (b) everything else
Attribution theory
analyzes how we explain people’s behavior and what we infer from it
What are 3 reasons for self-serving bias
- We are more likely to pay attention what we are doing than others
- Motivated to verify our self conceptions
- Motivated in raising our self image
Academic self -comcept is what. What did praise or word of encouragement do to affect grades
whether you think you are good in school students whose self-esteem was boosted did by far the worst on the final
Joseph Walther on social media
social media = impression management on steroids
Intuitions on what influence and what we feel & do are wrong or right
wrong
What matters more in an individualistic society
Me—personal achievement and fulfillment; my rights and liberties
How do our social beliefs matter?
Influence how we feel and act, which helps generate their own reality
Deanna Caputo & David Dunning on overconfidence
confirmed our ignorance of our ignorance sustains our self-confidence
Tends to occur more on easy tasks, Poor performers appreciate lack of skill on difficult task
Spontaneous trait inference
An effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone’s behavior.
How do narcissists personalities change
Outgoing and charming at first -> long term relationship problems
People with high self-efficacy
- more persistent
- less anxious
- less depressed
- live healthier lives
- more academically successful
Independent self
Construing one’s identity as an autonomous self.
Amygdala
treat detection center of brain
In a 2006–2008 worldwide poll (Deaton, 2009), most people expected their lives to
improve more in the next five years than it had in the past five years.
What does our sense of self-control do
- organizes our thoughts, feelings , and actions
- enables us to remember our past
- assess our present
- project our future
Swann & Read describe Self-verification like
a domineering person at a party
Self-Handicapping
Sometimes people sabotage their chances for success by creating impediments that make success less likely
Realistic self-confidence is
adaptive
don’t undermine one’s reasonable self-confidence
What is the “ Dark Triad “ and who made it
Delroy Paulhus & Kevin Williams: “ The Dark Triad “ of negative traits
Narcissism
Machiavellianism
Antisocial psychopathy
According to Wicker (1969) people’s expressed attitudes hardly predicted their
behavior
For strategic reasons we express attitudes that make us appear consistent. This is a description of self- ___
, also known as impression management.
presentation
System remembering:
System 1: remember implicitly
Most in people with Brian damage who can’t form explicit memories
System 2: facts, names, past experiences
Self-perception theory = people explain behavior by noting the conditions they occur under
Rewarding people for doing things they already want to do = attribute action to reward - over justification effect
Rosenthal & Lenore Jacobson theory and what it is
“Teacher-expectation effect”
Teachers that were told certain students were on verge of dramatic intellectual spurt did
Suggested = schools problems of disadvantage students might reflect teachers low expectations
Availability Heuristics
the more easily we recall something, the more likely it seems
Illusion of transparency
We believe our emotions are more obvious than they really are
Selective exposure to agreeable information does what
minimizes dissonance
Jeff Greenberg view on self-esteem
Terror management theory
we must continually pursue self-esteem by meeting the standards of our societies
Neil Weinstein view on optimism
humans have unrealistic optimism about future life events
Availability heuristics may led to:
overwhelming vivid instances and thus fearing the wrong things
Because media makes LGBTQ plus cognitively available = US adults estimate 20% of Americans are LGBTQ plus (really 4.1%)
Geoffrey Munro on presidential debates
people on both sides become more supportive of respective candidates after viewing presidential debate
What do we use to make social judgments
- Observation
- Expectation
- Reason
- Passion.
What did Richard Nisbett think
Collectivism results in different ways of thinking
(Book: The geography of thought)
Daniel Batson (2006) quote,
“The head is an extension of the heart.”
Attitudes that best predict behavior =
- easily brought to mind
- stable
Over-justification effect
being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action
Are cultures growing more individualistic or collectilitic
individualistic over time
When facing competition, we often protect our shaky self-concept by
perceiving our competitors as advantaged.
Who did the Stanford prison experiment and what were the results
Philip Zimbardo: Stanford prison experiment
Results: confusion between reality and illusion, between role-playing and self identity
Fundamental attribution error is fundamental because
it colors are explanations in basic and important ways
Attributions predict attitudes towards the poor and the unemployed
Counterfactual thinking
their mentally simulating what might have been
Edward Jones & Victor Harris and fundamental attribution error
people know they are causing someone else’s behavior but still underestimate external influences
Positive behavior fosters
liking for the person
Are most of our behavior controlled, what is controlled?
No automatic
Controlled:
- long-term planning
- goal setting
- restraint
- alternatives
- compares itself with others
- manages its reputation and relationships
