Exam 3 (Ch 5 & 6)

Question 1

Reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response.

Answer 1

Response Shaping

Question 2

1. Using likes to manipulate A.I. to show specific content
2. Training a dog to high-five, starting from basic training method then make minor adjustments closer to the target behavior

These are examples of?

Answer 2

Response shaping

Question 3

1. Change in the value of a reinforcer produced by prior experience with a reinforcer of a higher or lower value.
2. Prior experience with a lower valued reinforcer increases reinforcer value ______ ______ ______
3. Prior experience with a higher valued reinforcer reduces reinforcer value ______ ______ ______
4. The anticipated value of a reinforcer of a higher or lower value.

Answer 3

1. Behavioral Contrast Effect
2. Positive Contrast Effect
3. Negative Contrast Effect
4. Anticipated Contrast Effect

Question 4

Laboratory rats were given a sucrose solution to drink for 5 minutes each day. For one group of rats, the sucrose solution was always 4% throughout the experiment. For a second group, the sucrose solution was much more tasty (32%) on the first 10 trials and was then decreased to 4% for the remaining four trials. How long the rats spent licking the sucrose solution on each trial is summarized in a graph. During the first 10 trials, the rats spent a bit more time licking the more tasty 32% sucrose solution than the 4% solution. However, when the 32% solution was changed to 4%, these rats showed a dramatic decrease in licking time. In fact, the shifted group licked significantly less of the 4% sucrose on trials 11 and 12 than the nonshifted group that received 4% sucrose all along.

This illustrates what?

Answer 4

Negative behavioral contrast effects

Question 5

This can occur either because of a shift from a prior reward magnitude or because of an anticipated reward.

Answer 5

Behavioral Contrast Effects

Question 6

If one expects an airplane to leave at a certain time, but it doesn’t. This leads to frustration.

This examples illustrates?

Answer 6

Anticipated Contrast Effects

Question 7

An activity that occurs because it is effective in producing a particular consequence or reinforcer.

Answer 7

Instrumental behavior (conditioning)

Question 8

1. A person must press a button for the elevator
2. A rat must push a lever to receive a food pellet
3. A person must put money in the soda machine for coke

These are all examples that illustrate?

Answer 8

Instrumental conditioning

Question 9

A mechanism of instrumental behavior, proposed by Thorndike, which states that if a response (R) is followed by a satisfying event in the presence of a stimulus (S), the association between the stimulus and the response (S-R) will be strengthened; if the response is followed by an annoying event, the S-R association will be weakened.

S-R-O(S)
stimulus, response, outcome (or stimulus)

Answer 9

Law of Effect (1911)

Question 10

This law is an attractive mechanism to explain compulsive habits that are difficult to break, such as

1. biting one’s nails
2. snacking on popcorn during a movie because of the sight and smell
3. smoking cigarettes.

Once learned, habitual responses occur because they are triggered by an antecedent stimulus and not because they result in a desired consequence

(S-R mechanism is independent of consequences)

Answer 10

Law of Effects

Question 11

A method of instrumental conditioning in which the participant can perform the instrumental response only during specified periods, usually determined either by placement of the participant in an experimental chamber or by the presentation of a stimulus.

Answer 11

Discrete-trial procedure

Question 12

These procedures usually contain the use of a maze that was introduced by W. S. Small

These procedures use two types of mazes, those are?

Answer 12

1. Discrete-trial procedure
2. The Runway (straight-alley)
3. T maze

Question 13

A common measurement of behavior in runway mazes. The time it takes the animal to leave the start box and begin running down the alley. Typically, these times become shorter as training progresses.

Answer 13

latency

Question 14

A common measurement of behavior is quantified by measuring how fast the animal gets from the start box to the goal box in runway mazes

Answer 14

running times

Question 15

A method of instrumental conditioning that permits repeated performance of the instrumental response without intervention by the experimenter. In other words, they never leave the testing environment.

Answer 15

Free-Operant Procedure

Question 16

A response that is defined by the effect it produces in the environment.

Examples include:
1. Pressing a lever
2. Opening a door

Any sequence of movements that depresses the lever or opens the door constitutes an instance of that particular operant.

Answer 16

Operant response

Question 17

In Skinner’s box, to measure behavior is defined in terms of the effect that the behavior has on the environment.

A rat may press the level with its:
1. Right paw
2. Left paw
3. Tail

It all still results in food or water

Various ways of pressing the lever are assumed to be functionally equivalent because they all have the same effect on the environment.

This all explains

Answer 17

Operant response

Question 18

During operant conditioning while using the Skinner box..

1. What is the measurement typically used?
2. What are two important questions to have about the possible outcomes of the skinner box?

Answer 18

1. Rate (%)
2. Outcomes
   - Is the outcome being added or removed?
   - Is the outcome pleasant or unpleasant?

Question 19

What are the 4 possible instrumental conditioning reinforcement procedures?

Answer 19

1. Positive Reinforcement
2. Negative Reinforcement
3. Positive Punishment
4. Negative Punishment

Question 20

An instrumental conditioning procedure in which there is a positive contingency between the instrumental response and an appetitive stimulus or reinforcer. If the participant performs the response, it receives the reinforcer if the participant does not perform the response, it does not receive the reinforcer.

Answer 20

Positive Reinforcement

Question 21

An instrumental conditioning procedure in which there is a negative contingency between the instrumental response and an aversive stimulus. If the instrumental response is performed, the aversive stimulus is terminated or canceled; if the instrumental response is not performed, the aversive stimulus is presented.

Answer 21

Negative reinforcement

Question 22

An instrumental conditioning procedure in which there is a positive contingency between the instrumental response and an aversive stimulus. If the participant performs the instrumental response, it receives the aversive stimulus; if the participant does not perform the instrumental response, it does not receive the aversive stimulus.

Answer 22

Punishment AKA Positive punishment

Question 23

1. An instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response.
2. An instrumental conditioning procedure in which the instrumental response prevents the delivery of a reinforcing stimulus.
3. Both are also known as

Answer 23

1. Differential Reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)
2. Omission training
3. Negative Punishment

Question 24

Using M&M’s as a reward to help your toddler learn how to use the bathroom is an example of what instrumental conditioning procedure?

Answer 24

Positive Reinforcement

Question 25

Continuing to nag roommate about taking out the trash, but nagging stops once the trash is taken out is an example of what instrumental conditioning procedure?

Answer 25

Negative Reinforcement

Question 26

Your dog tries to bite someone, so you spank them is an examples of what instrumental conditioning procedure?

Answer 26

Positive Punishment

Question 27

Your kid loves TikTok but they got into trouble, as a result you take away their phone so they can’t use TikTok.

This is an examples of what instrumental conditioning procedure?

Answer 27

Negative Punishment

AKA
1. Omission Training
2. Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

Question 28

What is the relationship between classical and instrumental learning?

Answer 28

They seem to exist within each other, see notebook for illustration

Question 29

The idea, originally proposed by Thorndike, that an organism’s evolutionary history makes certain responses fit or belong with certain reinforcers. This idea facilitates learning

Often times, the bigger the reward = the faster learning occurs

Answer 29

Belongingness

Question 30

activities the animals instinctively perform when obtaining food.

Answer 30

instinctive drift

Question 31

Typically used to measure the magnitude of the reinforcer or how valuable the outcome is. The participant has to make increasing numbers of responses to obtain the reinforcer.

At the start of each session, Chad had to make just one button press to get reinforced, but as the session went on, the number of button presses required for each reinforcer progressively increased

Answer 31

Progressive Ratio schedule

Question 32

The occurrence of two events, such as a response and a reinforcer, at the same time or very close together in time. AKA

Answer 32

Contiguity; Temporal Contiguity

Question 33

Behavior that increases in frequency because of accidental pairings of the delivery of a reinforcer with occurrences of the behavior.

Example:
Pigeons train themselves to do a specific behavior because they were rewarded randomly. Pigeons are trying to figure out what they did to get that reward.

Answer 33

Superstitious behavior

Question 34

An instance in which the delivery of a reinforcer happens to coincide with a particular response, even though that response was not responsible for the reinforcer presentation. Also called adventitious reinforcement. This type of reinforcement was considered to be responsible for “superstitious” behavior.

Answer 34

Accidental reinforcement

Question 35

Interference with the learning of new instrumental responses as a result of exposure to inescapable and unavoidable aversive stimulation.

Answer 35

learned-helplessness effect

Question 36

The proposal that exposure to inescapable and unavoidable aversive stimulation reduces motivation to respond and disrupts subsequent instrumental conditioning because participants learn that their behavior does not control outcomes.

Answer 36

Learned-helplessness hypothesis

Question 37

A program, or rule, that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by the delivery of the reinforcer.

Answer 37

schedule of reinforcement

Question 38

A graphical representation of how a response is repeated over time, with the passage of time represented by the horizontal distance (or x axis), and the total or cumulative number of responses that have occurred up to a particular point in time represented by the vertical distance (or y axis).

Answer 38

cumulative record

Question 39

A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response produces the reinforcer. Also considered a ratio schedule

Answer 39

Continuous reinforcement (CRF)

Question 40

A reinforcement schedule in which a fixed number of responses must occur in order for the next response to be reinforced.

Answer 40

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)

Question 41

A reinforcement schedule in which the number of responses necessary to produce reinforcement varies from trial to trial. The value of the schedule refers to the average number of responses required for reinforcement.

Answer 41

Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

Question 42

A schedule in which reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the participant performs, irrespective of when those responses occur.

Answer 42

Ratio Schedule

Question 43

A reinforcement schedule in which a certain amount of time is required to set up the reinforcer. A response is reinforced only if it occurs after the reinforcer has been set up.

Answer 43

Interval Schedule

Question 44

A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a fixed amount of time following the last reinforcer or the beginning of the trial.

Answer 44

Fixed-Interval Schedule (FI)

Question 45

A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is provided for the first response that occurs after a variable amount of time from the last reinforcer or the start of the trial.

Answer 45

Variable-Interval Schedule (VI)

Question 46

A pause in responding that typically occurs after the delivery of the reinforcer on FR and FI schedules of reinforcement.

Answer 46

Post-reinforcement pause

Question 47

Real Life Examples:
1. People who distribute flyers are typically paid a certain amount for every batch of 50 flyers that they place on apartment doors.
2. Checking class attendance by reading the roll is on this type of schedule, set by the number of students on the class roster.
3. Making a phone call also involves this type of schedule, as each phone number includes a predetermined number of digits.

Lab Examples:
1. Delivering the reinforcer after every 10th lever-press response in a study with laboratory rats.

Are all examples of which type of reinforcement schedule?

Answer 47

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Question 48

Real Life Examples:
1. Each time a custodian goes into a room on his or her rounds, he or she knows that some amount of cleaning will be necessary but does not know exactly how dirty the room will be.
2. Gamblers playing a slot machine are also responding to this type of schedule. They have to play the machine to win. However, they never know how many plays will produce the winning combination.
3. This type of schedules are also common in sports. A certain number of strokes are always required to finish a hole in golf. But, most players cannot be sure how many strokes they will need when they begin a hole.

Lab Examples:
1. Requiring a pigeon to make 10 responses to earn the first reinforcer, 13 to earn the second, 7 for the next one, and so on. Such a schedule requires on average 10 responses per reinforcer and would be a variable-ratio 10 schedule (VR 10).

Are all examples of which type of reinforcement schedule?

Answer 48

Variable-ratio schedule

Question 49

Real Life Example:
1. A washing machine, for example, operates on this type of reinforcement schedule. A fixed amount of time is required to complete the wash cycle.

Lab Examples:
1. A 4-minute schedule (FI 4 min) for pecking in pigeons. In this case, 4 minutes would be required to set up the reinforcer. A pigeon would get reinforced for the first peck it made after completion of the 4-minute setup time. Because pecks made less than 4 minutes into the trial are never reinforced, the pigeons would learn to wait to respond until the end of the fixed interval

This is an example of which type of reinforcement schedule?

Answer 49

Fixed-interval schedule

Question 50

Real Life Examples:
1. A mechanic who cannot tell you how long it will take to fix your car has imposed this type of schedule on you. The car will not be ready for some time, during which attempts to get it will not be reinforced. How much time has to pass before the car will be ready is unpredictable.
2. A sales clerk at a bakery is also on this type of schedule of reinforcement. Some time has to pass after waiting on a customer before another will enter the store to buy something. However, the interval between customers is unpredictable.

Lab Examples:
1. could be set up in which the first food pellet will be available when at least 1 minute has passed since the beginning of the session, the second food pellet will be available when at least 3 minutes have passed since the previous pellet, and the third reinforcer will be available when at least 2 minutes have passed since the previous pellet.

These are examples of which type of reinforcement schedule?

Answer 50

variable-interval schedule

Question 51

What are the similarities between ratio and interval schedules?

Does this mean that interval and ratio schedules motivate behavior in the same way?

Answer 51

FR and FI
1. There is a post-reinforcement pause after each delivery of the reinforcer.
2. Produce high rates of responding just before the delivery of the next reinforcer

VR and VI
1. Maintain steady rates of responding without predictable pauses.

Not at all! Fundamental differences in the underlying motivational mechanisms of interval and ratio schedules

Question 52

An important experiment done by Reynolds (1975) measured pigeon pecking, each placed on either a VR or VI reinforcement schedule. The pigeon reinforced on the VR schedule responded at a much higher rate than the pigeon reinforced on the VI schedule. The VR schedule motivated much more vigorous instrumental behavior.

This illustrates what?

Answer 52

Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules

Question 53

What are the major explanations why ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules?

Answer 53

1. Reinforcement of Inter-Response Times
2. Feedback Functions

Question 54

1. Focuses on the relationship between response rates and reinforcement rates calculated over an entire experimental session or an extended period of time. This relationship is called the ______ ______ because reinforcement is considered to be the feedback or consequence of responding.
2. In the long run, what is the relationship between response rate and reinforcement rate on ratio schedules?

Answer 54

1. Feedback Function
2. Response rate is directly related to reinforcement rate

Question 55

What is the feedback function for the ratio schedule?

Answer 55

Increasing linear function with no limit

Question 56

What is the feedback function for the interval schedule?

Answer 56

Increasing linear function with an upper limit

Question 57

this type of schedule allow for continuous measurement of choice because the organism is free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time.

Answer 57

Concurrent schedules

Question 58

Real Life Examples:
1. Playing slot machines in a casino is on a this type of schedule, with lots of response options. Each type of slot machine operates on a different schedule of reinforcement, and you can play any of the machines. Furthermore, you are at liberty to switch from one machine to another at any time. As with slot machines, you can change your selection at any time.
2. Closer to home, operating the remote control for your TV is also on this type of schedule. You can select any one of a number of channels to watch. Some channels are more interesting than others, which indicates that your watching behavior is reinforced on different schedules of reinforcement.

Lab Examples:
1. If the pigeon pecks the key on the left, it receives food according to a VI 60-second schedule. Pecks on the right key produce food according to an FR 10 schedule. The pigeon is free to peck either side at any time. The point of the experiment is to see how the pigeon distributes its pecks on the two keys and how the schedule of reinforcement on each key influences its choices.

These are all examples of which type of reinforcement schedule?

Answer 58

Concurrent schedule

Question 59

Measures of choice behavior
1. Relative rate of responding
2. Relative rate of reinforcement

Answer 59

Formula
BL/ (BL + BR)
RL/ (RL + RR)

Question 60

A rule for instrumental behavior, proposed by R. J. Herrnstein, which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response alternative.

Answer 60

Matching Law

Question 61

Less sensitivity to the relative rate of reinforcement than predicted by the matching law.

Answer 61

Undermatching

Question 62

This bias occurs when the response alternatives require different amounts of effort or if the reinforcer provided for one response is much more attractive than the reinforcer for the other response.

Answer 62

Response Bias

Question 63

More sensitivity to the relative rate of reinforcement than predicted by the matching law.

Answer 63

Overmatching

Question 64

explain aggregates of responses. They deal with the distribution of responses and reinforcers in choice situations during an entire experimental session.

Answer 64

Molar theories

Question 65

other explanations of the matching relation operate on a shorter time frame and focus on what happens at the level of individual responses and view the matching relation as the net result of these individual choices.

Answer 65

Molecular theories

Question 66

The explanation that emphasized the reinforcement of inter-response times was a molecular or local account. In contrast, the explanation that emphasized feedback functions of ratio and interval schedules was a molar theory.

True/False

Answer 66

True

Question 67

The most extensively investigated explanations of choice behavior are based on the intuitively reasonable idea that organisms distribute their actions among response alternatives so as to receive the maximum amount of reinforcement possible

Answer 67

Maximizing rates of reinforcement

Question 68

organisms always choose whichever response alternative is most likely to be reinforced at a given moment in time.

Answer 68

Molecular maximizing

Question 69

assume that organisms distribute their responses among various alternatives so as to maximize the amount of reinforcement they earn over the long run.

Answer 69

Molar Maximizing

Question 70

A mechanism for achieving matching by responding so as to improve the local rates of reinforcement for response alternatives.

Answer 70

Melioration

Question 71

A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become unavailable until the start of the next trial. This type of schedules allow for the study of choice with commitment.

The other choices not chosen are considered ______ ______

Answer 71

Concurrent-Chain schedule of reinforcement

Opportunity Costs

Question 72

A matter of choosing a large delayed reward over an immediate small reward.

Answer 72

Self-control

Question 73

Decrease in the value of a reinforcer as a function of how long one has to wait to obtain it.

Answer 73

Delay discounting

Question 74

Why is it so difficult to be motivated to work for large but delayed rewards?

Answer 74

Delay discounting

Question 75

Understanding delay discounting can help many issues including predicting issues like

Answer 75

1. Impulsivity
2. Self-Regulation

Question 76

Delayed Discounting Formula used to empirically describe it

Answer 76

V = A / 1 + kD

V = Subjective value
A = Reward amount
D = delay
k = discounting rate (impulsivity, self-regulation)