Exam 3 (CH. 11, 12, 14, 15, 16) Flashcards
indicates the degree to which people believe they control their fate through their own efforts
locus of control
person believes he or she controls his or her own destiny
internal locus of control
person believes external forces control him or her
external locus of control
a person’s belief in his or her personal ability to do a task
self-efficacy
a debilitating lack of faith in one’s ability to control one’s environment
learned helplessness
the extent to which people like or dislike themselves - overall self-evaluation
self-esteem
the ability to feel secure and confident when working under pressure
emotional stability
the ability to cope, empathize with others, and be self-motivated
emotional intelligence
traits associated with emotional intelligence
self-awareness
self-management
social awareness
relationship management
an interdisciplinary field dedicated to the better understanding and management of people at work; deals with both individual and group behavior
organizational behavior
abstract ideals that guides one’s thinking and behavior across all situations
values
a learned predisposition toward a specific person or object
attitude
______ are solidified, but _______ can change over time
values; attitudes
the feelings or emotions one has about a situation
affective component of an attitude
the beliefs and knowledge one has about a situation
cognitive component of an attitude
how one intends or expects to behave in a situation
behavioral component of an attitude
the psychological discomfort a person experiences as a result of behavior incompatible with his or her cognitive attitude
cognitive dissonace
people’s actions and judgments, which are influenced by values and attitudes
behavior
the process of interpreting and understanding one’s environment
perception
the tendency to attribute to an individual the characteristics one believes are typical of the group to which the individual belongs
stereotyping
3 types of stereotypes
- sex-role stereotypes: beliefs that men and women are better suited for different roles
- age stereotypes: beliefs that older workers are less involved, committed, motivated, and satisfied with their work
- race/ethnicity stereotypes: beliefs that individuals of certain races or ethnicities are less suited to perform a job
refers to a situation in which one forms an impression of an individual based on a single trait
halo effect
refers to a tendency to remember recent information more readily than earlier information
recency effect
the activity of inferring causes for observed behaviors
causal attribution
occurs when people attribute another person’s behavior to his or her personal characteristics rather than to situational factors
fundamental attribution bias
occurs when people tend to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure
self-serving bias
describes the phenomenon in which people’s expectations of themselves or others often lead them to behave in ways that make those expectations come true
self-fulfilling prophecy
an individual’s satisfaction, involvement, and enthusiasm for work
employee engagement
the extent to which you feel positive or negative about various aspects of your work
job satisfaction
reflects the extent to which an employee identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals
organizational commitment
a situation in which an employee does not show up for work
absenteeism
occurs when employees leave their jobs
turnover
those employee behaviors that are not directly part of the employees’ job descriptions; behaviors that exceed work-role requirements
organizational citizenship behaviors
types of behaviors that harm not only employees but also the organization as a whole
ex: absenteeism, tardiness, disciplinary problems, drug and alcohol abuse
counterproductive work behaviors (CWB)
the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another
communication
translating a message into understandable symbols or language
encoding
interpreting and trying to make sense of the message
decoding
indicates how well a particular medium conveys information and promotes learning
media richness
highest media richness (rich media)
face-to-face conversations
lowest media richness (lean media)
impersonal written media (newsletters, general reports)
____ media are best in non-routine situations
rich media
____ media are best in routine situations
lean media
this type of communication channel follows the chain of command and is recognized as official
ex: memos, reports, announcements, letters
formal
this type of communication flows up and down the hierarchy
vertical
this type of communication flows from a higher level to a lower level
downward
i.e. used in meetings, emails, memos
this type of communication flows from a lower level to a higher level
upward
this type of communication flows within and between work units; its main purpose is coordination
horizontal
i.e. supported through task forces, committees, and matrix structures
this type of communication flows between people inside and outside the organization
external
this type of communication channel develops outside the formal structure and does not follow the chain of command
informal
the unofficial communication system of the informal organization; workplace rumors and gossip
75% is accurate, and most employees get info from here
grapevine
term used to describe a manager literally wandering around his or her organization, talking with people across all lines of authority
management by wandering around (MBWA)
refers to the psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-orienting behavior
motivation
in a __________, unfulfilled needs create a motivation to perform certain behaviors, which lead to rewards that fulfill those needs
simple model of motivation
the payoff, such as money, a person receives from others for performing a particular task
extrinsic reward
the satisfaction a person receives from performing the particular task itself
intrinsic reward
theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people
content perspectives
physiological or psychological deficiencies that drive behavior
needs
Abraham Maslow’s ___________ proposes that people are motivated by five levels of needs: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization
hierarchy of needs theory
David McClelland’s ___________ states that three needs – achievement, affiliation, and power – are major motives that determine people’s behavior in the workplace
acquired needs theory
the desire to influence or control others
need for power
the desire to excel, solve problems, achieve excellence in difficult tasks, and do something more effectively or efficiently
need for achievement
the desire for warm, friendly relations with others
need for affiliation
an individual who doesn’t mind working alone, is willing to take moderate risks, and feels rewarded by the accomplishment of the task is someone who has
high need for achievement
an individual who does best at a job that emphasizes personal relationships, like sales positions has
high need for affiliation
individuals who enjoy the responsibility of being in charge of people and events have
high need for power
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan developed the __________, which states that people are motivated by three intrinsic needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness
self-determination theory
***focuses on intrinsic motivation
Frederick Herzberg’s ____________, proposes that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors: hygiene factors and motivating factors
two-factor theory
the lower-level needs associated with job dissatisfaction – such as salary, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, and company policy – all of which affect the job context in which people work
hygiene factors
the higher-level needs associated with job satisfaction – such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and performance – all of which affect the job content or the rewards of work performance
motivating factors
this theory suggests that managers should first aim to reduce dissatisfaction by implementing reasonable company policies and making sure that pay and working conditions are appropriate.
only after they do so can they work on motivating employees by offering recognition, responsibility, and opportunities for growth
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
________ are concerned with the thought processes people use to decide how to act
process perspectives
developed by J. Stacey Adams, ________ focuses on employee perceptions as to how fairly they think they are being treated compared to others
equity theory
______ include anything the employee puts into the job, such as time, seniority, and intelligence
inputs
_____ include anything the employee gets out of the job such as pay, promotions, and praise
outputs
developed by Victor Vroom, _________ suggests that people are motivated by two things: 1. how much they want something and 2. how likely they are to get it
expectancy theory
the belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of performance
expectancy (effort to performance expectancy)
the expectation that successful performance of a task will lead to a desired outcome
instrumentality (performance to reward expectancy)
value, the importance a worker assigns to a possible outcome or reward
valence
the distribution of an organization’s work among its employees and the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance
job design
the process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs
job simplification
this consists of increasing the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation
job enlargement (horizontal loading)
this consists of building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement
job enrichment (vertical loading)
developed by J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, the ________ consists of five core job characteristics that affect three critical psychological states of an employee
job characteristics model
five core job characteristics of the job characteristics model:
skill variety task identity task significance autonomy feedback
***characteristics affect 3 important psychological traits: meaningfulness of work, responsibility for results, and knowledge of results
Edward L. Thorndike’s ______ states that individuals tend to repeat behaviors with pleasant outcomes and tend not to repeat behaviors with unpleasant outcomes
law of effect
B.F. Skinner described _____, the manipulation of behavior by controlling consequences
operant conditioning
this theory attempts to explain behavioral change by suggesting that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior with negative consequences tends to not be repeated
reinforcement theory
the use of positive consequences to encourage desirable behavior
positive reinforcement
the removal of unpleasant consequences following a desired behavior
negative reinforcement
withholding or withdrawal of positive rewards for behavior so the behavior is less likely to occur in the future
extinction
application of negative consequences to stop or change undesirable behavior
punishment
the ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals
leadership
a combination of management and leadership, which exists when a person influences others about what needs to be done and how to do it in the workplace
managerial leadership
organizations use management to deal with
complexity
organizations use leadership to deal with
change
power directed at helping oneself; self-serving and generally gives power a bad name
personalized power
power directed at helping others; more selfless and useful
socialized power
5 major sources of power within an organization
- legitimate power: results from managers’ formal positions within organization
- reward power: results from managers’ authority to reward their subordinates (promotions, raises, etc.)
- coercive power: results from managers’ authority to punish their subordinates (termination, demotion, etc.)
- expert power: results from one’s specialized information or expertise
- referent power: power derived from one’s personal attraction
9 tactics for influencing others
- rational persuasion: using logic, reason, facts
- inspirational appeals: using emotions, values, ideals
- consultation: involving others in decision or change
- ingratiating tactics: making someone feel good or important
- personal appeals: making request based on friendship or loyalty
- exchange tactics: offering to trade favors or remind someone of past favors
- coalition tactics: gathering support for your effort
- pressure tactics: forcing compliance through demands, threats or intimidation
- legitimating tactics: basing request on authority or organizational policies
the ____________ attempt to identify distinctive characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders
trait approaches to leadership
dark-side traits to leadership
- narcissism
- machiavellianism
- psychopathy
the ___________ attempt to determine the distinctive styles used by effective leaders
behavioral leadership approaches
task-oriented leadership behavior attempts to use ______ to efficiently achieve the goals of the organization or group
resources (people, equipment, etc.)
this behavior encompasses how a leader organizes and defines how employees should do their jobs in order to be as efficient as possible
initiating-structure leadership
after defining an employee’s role and responsibilities, a _______ leader will also establish performance-based punishments and rewards
transactional
__________ is focused on creating positive relationships between leaders and employees, and among coworkers
relationship-oriented leadership
under _______ leadership, the concerns of the employees become the concerns of the leader; mutual sense of trust and respect is developed as result
consideration
_________ leadership involves enhancing the sense of employees’ psychological empowerment, or their sense of control over their work
empowering
_________ is often used to empower employees, as it involves employees in the goal-setting, decision-making, problem-solving, and change processes
participative management
________ leadership is actually a lack of leadership
passive
________ leadership is a failure of a manager to take the responsibility of leading
laissez-faire
_______ leadership depends on the situation at hand
contingency
Fred Fielder’s ___________ determines if a leadership style is 1. task-oriented or 2. relationship-oriented and if that style is effective for the situation at hand
contingency leadership model
3 dimensions of situational control
- leader-member relations: degree to which group shows support and trust toward leader
- task structure: degree to which tasks are unambiguous, routine, and easily understood
- position power: degree to which leader has power to reward, punish, and make work assignment
according to Fielder’s model, a __________ style is best in high-control or low-control situations
task-oriented
in moderate-control situations, however, a ________ style is beset
relationship-oriented
Robert House’s ___________ holds that the effective leader makes desirable rewards available to followers in the workplace and increases their motivation by clarifying the paths, or behavior, that will help them achieve those goals and by providing support
path-goal leadership model
according to House, there are 8 leadership styles:
- path-goal clarifying
- achievement-oriented
- work facilitation
- supportive
- interaction facilitation
- group-oriented decision making
- representation and networking
- value-based
employee characteristics and environmental factors influence
which leadership style is best in each situation; ex: group-oriented, achievement-oriented, path-goal
House emphasizes _______. That is, leader behavior is demonstrated among all of the employees in an organization, not just by supervisors or managers
shared leadership
Bernard Bass and Bruce Avolio’s model of ___________ suggests that leadership behavior varies along a full range of leadership styles, from take-no-responsibility “leadership” at one extreme, through transactional leadership, to transformational leadership at the other extreme
full range leadership
_________ leadership inspires employees to pursue organization goals over self-interests
transformational
transformation leadership is best
in a flexible organizational culture within a changing environment; leaders are extroverted, proactive, and agreeable
4 key behaviors of transformational leaders that attract followers:
- inspirational motivation
- idealized influence
- individualized consideration
- intellectual stimulation
refers to monitoring performance, comparing performance with goals, and taking corrective action as needed
controlling
6 reasons why organizations need to use control
- to deal with uncertainty and adapt to change
- to find errors and irregularities
- to increase productivity, add value, or reduce costs
- to find opportunitites
- to deal with complexity
- to facilitate teamwork and decentralize organizational decision making
4 steps in the control process
- establish standards (control standard = desired performance level for a given goal)
- measure performance: written reports, oral reports, personal observation
- compare performance standards
- take corrective action, if necessary
a control principle that states that managers should be informed of a situation only if data show a significant deviation from standards
management by exception
monitoring performance to ensure that the strategic plans are being implemented, and then taking corrective action as needed
strategic control (top management)
monitoring performance to ensure that tactical plans – those at the divisional or departmental level – are being implemented and corrective action is being taken as needed
tactical control (middle managers)
monitoring performance to ensure that operational plans – day to day goals– are being implemented and corrective action is being taken, as needed
operational control (first-level managers)
this area of control monitors equipment, tangible products, and buildings
physical area of control
drug testing, performance tests, and employee surveys fall under this area of control
human resources area of control
sales forecasts, public relations briefings, and production schedules fall under this area of control
informational area of control
accounts payable, cash-on-hand, and budgets fall under this area of control
financial area of control
this area of control refers to the structural or hierarchical arrangement of the organization
structural area of control
an approach to organizational control characterized by the use of rules, regulations, and formal authority to guide performance; encourages compliance
i.e. works best in an organization with explicit, predictable tasks (like railroad company)
bureaucratic control
an approach to organizational control that is characterized by informal and organic structural arrangements; encourages commitment
i.e. common in flat organizations
decentralized control
in this area of control, the organization’s values and beliefs contribute to norms, which affect employee evaluation and control processes
cultural area of control
an easy-to-read display with up-to-date information about important organization information, such as sales and orders; helps make evidence-based management possible
dashboard
the _________ was developed by Robert Kaplan and David Norton and gives top managers a fast but comprehensive view of the organization via four indicators: 1. customer satisfaction, 2. internal processes, 3. innovation and improvement activities, and 4. financial measures
balanced scorecard
traditional financial measures can lead to short-term shareholder success without improving quality, worker motivation, or customer satisfaction
financial perspective
customer service dimensions include any factor that would produce customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction, including number of defects, price levels, quality, and time to respond to service calls
customer perspective
the effectiveness of internal processes are reflected in measures of employee skills, productivity, and quality
internal business perspective
innovation and creativity are based on employee learning and growth
innovation perspective
a _________, also developed by Kaplan and Norton, is a visual representation of the four perspectives of the balanced scorecard that enables managers to communicate their goals so that each person in the company can understand how his or her job is linked to the overall objectives of the organization
strategy map
study suggested that measurement-managed firms succeed more than non-measurement-managed firms for the following reasons:
- top-level executives agree on strategy
- communication is clear
- focus is stronger
- there is a culture of teamwork and risk taking
barriers to effective management:
- fuzzy objectives
- too much trust in informal feedback
- employee resistance
- too much focus on measurement
a formal financial projection
budget
_________ forces each department to start from zero in projecting its funding needs for the coming budget period; no longer favored
zero-based budgeting
_________ allocates increased or decreased funds to a department by using the last budgeting period as a reference point; only requests for incremental changes in the budget are reviewed
***downside: prevents managers from taking a critical look at departmental budget needs
incremental budgeting
this type of budget predicts cash inflows and outflows over a given period
cash flow budget
this type of budget predicts investments on major assets (like land or large equipment)
capital expenditures budget
this type of budget predicts future sales (typically by product, sales area, or month)
sales or revenue budget
this type of budget predicts the cost of different organizational activities
expense budget
this type of budget predicts cash sources and organizational spending
financial budget
this type of budget predicts organization output, financial requirements, and anticipated income
operating budget
this type of budget predicts requirements in terms of non-monetary units, such as labor hours
non-monetary budget
a ________ (aka static budget) allocates resources on the basis of a single estimate of costs; they do not allow variation or adjustment over time, even if organizational requirements change
fixed budget
a _______ allows the allocation of resources to vary in proportion with various levels of activity; allow for variation and adjustment over time as organizational requirements change
variable budget
4 characteristics common to successful control systems:
- strategic and results-oriented: managers should develop control standards while they are constructing strategic plans
- timely, accurate, and objective: control systems should provide managers with feedback on the right things at the right time
- realistic, positive, and understandable: control systems should be acceptable to workers who will have to operate under them
- flexible: control systems must be flexible when changes in the organization or environment make change necessary
barriers to control success:
- too much control
- too little participation by employees
- overemphasizing means instead of ends
- overemphasizing paperwork
- overemphasizing a single approach
_______ is a measure of outputs divided by inputs over a period of time
productivity
information systems for integrating virtually all aspects of a business
enterprise resource planning software systems
