Exam 3 Biology Flashcards
Simple Squamos E
Look: looks like an egg, one layer, and friction reducing
Location: lining of blood and lymph vessels, air sacs of lungs, and abdominal membrane
Function: diffusion, filtrations, and possible secretion of some lubricants
Simple Cuboidal E
Look: one layer, cube or square shaped
Location: ducts, secretory parts of small glands, retina, kidney tubules, ovaries, testes, and bronchioles
Function: secretion and absorption
Simple Columnar E
Look: one layer, column shaped
Location: glands, ducts, gut, parts of uterus, and small bronchi
Function: secretion, absorption, and sometimes movement
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar E
Look: one layer, varying heights so it looks like multiple layers, nuclei at different levels, surface may have cilia or mucous secreting glands
Location: trachea
Function: secretion of mucous and propulsion (movement) of mucous
Transitional Epithelium
Look: binucleated, dome-shaped, resembles both stratified squamos or cuboidal cells.
Location: lines the uterus, urethra, and bladder
Function: to swell, stretch, or enlarge to allow for more space (think of your bladder filling with urine)
Stratified Squamos (Keratinized or not) E
Look: multiple layers of squamos
Location: non-keratinized is in the anus, mouth(lips), pharynx, and esophagus, but keratinized is primarily the skin
Function: to protect and keratin also waterproofs
Stratified Cuboidal E
Lines the ducts of sweat glands, and secretes water and ions
Stratified Columnar E
Lines epididymis (duct that allows sperm to pass), mammary glands, and larynx and also secretes mucous
Extracellular Matrix Definition
The noncellular component present within tissues. ex. collagen for dense fibrous connective tissue.
Dense Regular Fibrous C
Facts: a lot of collagen, not very flexible but strong, also tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone), it is made of fibroblast cells like all other fibrous cells. Think straight lines.
Dense Irregular Fibrous C
Facts: same function as regular, but it is found in the dermis of the skin. Lines in every direction
Loose Fibrous C
Facts: flexible, fewer cells and fibers, found in soft organs like the spleen, liver, and lymph nodes, also the subtype adipose tissue (adipocytes) is just regular body fat that insulates and protects the body.
Elastic Fibrous C
Facts: more elastin than collagen fibers, and it is found in the lungs
Hyaline Cartilage
Similarities: Like all other cartilage it is secreted from chondrocytes within lacunae (cavities in the body) and is made of collagen and elastin fibers with a rubbery ground substance
Facts: fine collagen fibers, found in the nose, trachea, and fetal skeletons
Fibrocartilage
Facts: very strong collagen fibers, found in the discs within the vertebrae and knee joints.
Elastic Cartilage
Facts: more elastic fibers than the other types of cartilage, and found in the outer ear and epiglottis
Compact Bone C
Similarities: made up of osteocytes within lacunae and connected by channels called canaliculi, matrix is solid and rigid, made of collagen, calcium, and phosphorous salts
Facts: repeating circular units called osteons, found in the shafts of long bones
Spongy Bone C
Facts: an open, latticework with irregular spaces, found in ends of long bones
Fluid C
Made up of plasma. Includes Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, and Thrombocytes aka formed elements. A build of up Leukocytes is called lymph tissue
Skeletal Muscle
Facts: long and cylindrical, voluntary, striated, fast, and multinucleated (biceps, triceps, basically traditional muscles)
Smooth Muscle
Facts: spindle-shaped, involuntary, not striated, slow, and single nucleus, found in the walls of internal organs and blood vessels
Cardiac Muscle
Facts: branched cells, involuntary, striated, single nucleus, fast, and only found in the heart. It has intercollated discs to communicate
Neurons
Axon: Long tail that sends out messages
Dendrites: look likes hairs and the receive messages
Soma: the cell body
Nucleus: the brain of the cell inside the soma
Myelin Sheath: fatty substance that propagates the signal faster
Includes sensory neurons (receives to spine and brain) and motor (sends to muscles and glands)
4 Types of Neuroglia
Facts: 90% of the nervous system, brings nutrients to neurons, and provides physical support
Oligodendrocytes: produces myelin sheath around axons for the central nervous system (brain and spine)
Schwann Cells: produces myelin sheath around axons for the peripheral nervous system (anything outside of the brain and spine)
Astrocytes: produces a hormone (glia-derived growth factor) that repairs damaged nervous tissue
Microglia: engulfs and removes cell debris and bacteria
3 Types of Junctions
Facts: knits the cells firmly together, stops leaks, and serves as communication channels
Tight: is impermeable and found in the epithelium of the lungs specifically alveoli
Adhering: cements cells together but is flexible, found in the epithelium of the skin, and a specific kind is desmosomes
Gap: channels that connect the cytoplasm of neighboring cells and it is abundant in smooth and cardiac muscles. In the heart they are called intercalated discs.
Mucous Membrane
Similarities: like all the other tissue membranes, it is made up of epithelium and connective tissues. It is used to protect tissues and lubricate organs.
Facts: Designed to secrete and absorb substances, most have glands, and they line tubes and cavities
Serous Membrane
Facts: occurs in paired sheets, found in the peritoneum, pericardium, and the pleura in the lungs.
Cutaneous Membrane
Facts: dry membrane found in skin
Synovial Membranes
Facts: Line cavities of movable joints, lubricates the ends of bones, and prevents friction between the bones and moving tendons.
Basement Membranes
A membrane the epithelial tissues adhere to and it separates different tissues.
Heart vs. Blood Vessels
Heart: Generates pressure, and heart rate is variable
Blood vessels: regulates blood pressure, transports blood, and exchange of nutrients and gases
4 Layers of Heart
Pericardium: Outermost layer
Epicardium: Small layer between the myocardium and pericardium
Myocardium: The muscle of the heart
Endocardium: The deepest layer and it is the inside layer of the heart (where the blood touches the atrium or ventricles)
Cardiac Output
Every 60 seconds approximately 5 liters of blood circulates through your heart.
Order of Electrical Signal through Heart
SA Node –> AV Node –> Atrioventricular Bundle (bundle of HIS) –> Left and Right Bundle Branches –> Purkinje Fibers
What does Sympathetic Nervous System affect?
Stroke Volume, which in turns affects cardiac output
What does Parasympathetic Nervous System affect?
Heart Rate, which in turns affects cardiac output
Order of Blood Vessels
Heart –> Arteries (Blood Pressure and Blood Flow highest) –> Arterioles –> Capillaries (Slowest blood flow) –> Venules –> Veins (Lowest blood pressure)
Arteries
Carries blood away from the heart. 3 layers: outer is CT (collagen), middle is smooth muscle and elastin, and the inner is endothelium (simple squamos). The radial artery in your wrist is where you check the pulse.
Arteriole
Away from heart. 2 layers: smooth muscle and endothelium. This is responsible for and regulates blood pressure. They either dilate (decrease bp) or constrict (increase bp).
Capillary
We have around 40 billion capillaries. It is only one cell thick so it only has the simple squamos layer (NO SMOOTH MUSCLE). Diffusion happens across the walls, and the blood moves slow because the diffusion of nutrients and oxygen takes time.
Precapillary Sphincter
Only some of your capillaries are receiving blood at a given time. This controls what capillaries get blood and what ones don’t.
Arteriovenous Shunt
When the precapillary sphincters close (contract) blood stops going to the capillary bed and goes directly into the venules.
Venules
Function similarly to capillaries, but no diffusion occurs here. Made up of 3 layers. The collagen layer (CT), the smooth muscles, and the endothelium.
Veins
Large diameter and low resistant transport of blood black to the heart. Also has the same three layers, and acts as a blood reservoir (has 70% of the body’s total blood). It is also the only blood vessel with valves to prevent back flow.
Medulla
Can control both heart rate and blood pressure. It is responsible for vasodilation and vasoconstriction.
Baroreceptor
Found in the aorta and the carotid arteries (neck). Checks blood pressure and sends message to the medulla oblongata to change if needed.
Coronary Artery
The artery responsible for giving the myocardium oxygen.
Hepatic Portal System (mesenteric artery, hepatic portal vein, and hepatic vein)
Mesenteric Artery - Carries O2 rich blood to the small intestine
Hepatic Portal Vein - Carries nutrient rich but oxygen poor blood to the liver from the pancreas, intestines, etc.
Hepatic Vein - The vein that carries the nutrient rich blood from the liver to the heart (directly connected to the inferior vena cava).
Hypertension
Facts: the “silent” killer because there usually isn’t symptoms, anything over 130/80 blood pressure
Chronic Hypertension: leaky capillaries, internal bruising, and stroke
Control: dietary restrictions (reducing sugar), medications, exercising, and not smoking
Atherosclerosis
Facts: Plaques accumulate in blood vessels and stop blood flow. It is caused by bad cholesterol (vldl and ldl) and trans fat but can be reduced by good cholesterol (hdl)
Thrombus: a clot attached to cell wall
Embolism: a clot that floats in the blood stream
Aneurysm
When a blood vessel balloons around a embolism. It is usually fatal and one in the brain causes a stroke.
Stroke
F.A.S.T - Face, Arms, Speech, and Time
Commonly associated with loss of speech, motor controls, blindness, numbness, paralysis, or death.
700,000 Americans suffer a stroke each year.
Myocardial Infraction
aka heart attack
Happens due to coronary artery blockage which leads to a lack of oxygen.
Angina is pain resulting from temporary loss of oxygen to the heart. It can be stable (due to exercise) or unstable (no reason). Unstable is a sign of an impending heart attack. This can be controlled with nitrate drugs and numerous surgeries.
Congestive Heart Failure
There is a weak and ineffective pump leading to fluid backup and leakage in the lungs. This can cause pulmonary edema.
Symptoms: Difficulty breathing, fatigue, and eventual death
Types of Arrhythmias
Bradycardia - low heart rate
Tachycardia - high heart rate
Ventricular Fibrillation - disorganized ventricular contractions
Varicose Veins
Swelling of veins and venule walls near the valves. Spider veins involve the venules and not the veins. Surface venules fill with blood but do not empty.
Blood Composition
50-60% Plasma and 40-50% formed elements
Plasma Composition
92% Water
7-8% Plasma Proteins
1-2% Salts and Organic Compounds
3 Types of Plasma Proteins (albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen)
Albumins - most abundant, and causes osmotic pressure
Globulins - Alpha, Beta, and Gamma. They all transport hormones, cholesterol, and iron
Fibrinogen - blood clotting
Granular White Blood Cells (Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil)
Neutrophils - 50-70% of all WBC, multilobed nucleus, and used for infections (they use phagocytosis to engulf pathogens)
Eosinophils - Small percent of WBC, bilobed nucleus, and used to fight off parasites.
Basophils - Small percent of WBC, U shaped or lobed nucleus, and used to fight allergens and histamines.
Agranular White Blood Cells (Lymphocytes B, T, NK, and Monocytes)
Lymphocytes - 25-35% of all WBC, large nucleus, B is for antibodies, T is for cell-mediated immunity, and NK is for cancer cells.
Monocytes - Relatively uncommon, become macrophages (phagocytic in tissues and blood) or dendritic cells (phagocytic in skin)
Erythrocyte
They live 120 days. They contain hemoglobin (heme is iron containing group, globin is a four highly folded polypeptide chains). They perform anaerobic respiration (don’t actually use the oxygen).
3 Factors that affect how much oxygen hemoglobin can carry
- the temperature
- the pH or acidity
- the amount of O2 or CO2
The lungs are optimal because they are relatively cool, neutral acidity, and have high levels of oxygen.
Percent of CO2 in blood
25% carbaminohemoglobin
68% as bicarbonate ions in the plasma
7% as CO2 in plasma
How are red blood cells recycled and created?
Recycled: After their 120 day life span, blood is recycled. We do this because 2 million RBC enter our bloodstream each second. When its life span is over, the RBC goes to the spleen; the iron is recycled and the heme is converted into bilirubin.
Creation: When the kidneys detect reduced O2 levels in blood, they release erythropoietin. This hormone stimulates the bone marrow to make more RBC.
Antigens vs. Agglutinin
Antigens: “A” Antigen means A blood type and vice versa
Agglutinin: Type a contains anti-B agglutinins which will cause B blood to clump together
Thrombocytes
Fragments of megakaryocytes that contain proteins and enzymes.
Hemostasis
Process of clotting blood, has both intrinsic (in blood) and extrinsic (outside body) mechanics.
1. Injury
2. Spasm or contractions of vessel wall
3. Platelets come and stick to the collagen fibers on the vessel walls
4. Serotonin prolongs the spasm
5. Permanent clot forms
Thrombus vs. Embolus
Thrombus: clot that blocks blood flow
Embolus: a thrombus that floats and blocks another organ
Hemophilia
Genetic disorder where blood doesn’t clot properly
Thrombocytopenia
Low amount of platelets, either happens because bone marrow is not producing enough or there is an increased breakdown outside the bone marrow
Anemia(s)
Anemia: red blood cells not delivering enough oxygen
Iron-deficiency: Not enough iron
Pernicious: not enough vitamin B12 or folic acid
Aplastic: red bone marrow has been destroyed
Hemolytic: aka sickle-cell anemia
Thalassemia: abnormal hemoglobin
Structures and Functions of Lower Respiratory Tract
Structures: Trachea, Lungs, Bronchus, Bronchioles, and Alveoli
Function: Move inhaled air into respiratory membrane.
Conducting Zone: Upper tract and first part of lower, conducts air to lower parts of the respiratory tract (trachea, bronchioles)
Respiratory Zone: Where the gas exchange actually happens (alveoli, capillaries)
Structures and Functions of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Structures: Nose, pharynx, and larynx
Function: Starts the process of respiration, protects the lungs from food and particles, and produces sound.
Nose
It filters, has course hairs to stop larger projectiles and mucous to stop smaller particles. It is made up of pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells to move mucous and has chemosensory neurons to smell.
Pharynx (Naso, Oro, and Laryngo)
Nasopharynx - upper throat, open for breathing and closed for swallowing. Contains uvula (closes internal nares) and eustachian tubes (to middle ear, why they pop)
Oropharynx - Directly behind the tongue, covered by the uvula when hanging down, and tonsils are here.
Laryngopharynx - the end has two openings, anterior (front) leads to the larynx or respiratory system, or posterior (back) leads to the esophagus or digestive system.
Larynx
Divides upper and lower respiratory tracts, it is entirely hyaline cartilage (thyroid cartilage (front), epiglottis (protects lungs from food), and cricoid (ring of cartilage), holds the respiratory tract open, protect lower tract from particle matter, and the voice box
Trachea
Connects larynx to bronchi, around 2.5 centimeters wide, has 16 to 20 hyaline cartilage “c” rings, has mucous secreting cells and cilia.
Bronchial Tree
Order: trachea to primary bronchi, to secondary bronchi (3 right, 2 left), to tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles
Changes: As it get smaller two things happen. 1) the cells of the mucous secreting membrane (pseudostratified ciliated columnar) get smaller until they become simple columnar (called terminal bronchioles). 2) as the bronchi and bronchioles get smaller the amount of cartilage increases and the amount of smooth muscle increases.
Lungs
Structure: They are as high up as the clavicles and as low down as the 12th thoracic vertebrae and the broad portion of the diaphragm. Right side has 3 lobes and the left side has 2 because of the cardiac notch. Each lung has 10 terminal bronchioles to supply air to the bronchopulmonary segment (looks like grapes).
Pleura (Visceral, Parietal, and Cavity)
It is the membrane covering the lungs that allows for the lungs to expand without hurting the tissue. It has 3 parts
1. Visceral pleura - snug against lung tissue (innermost)
2. Parietal pleura - lines wall of thoracic cavity (outermost)
3. Pleural cavity - area of liquid between the two membranes.
Pneumothorax
Collapsed lung, air fills the pleural cavity.
Alveoli
Where gasses diffuse, they are clustered at the end of the terminal bronchioles called the alveolar sac. The alveolar sac is two squamos epithelial cells (1 is alveolar wall, other is capillary wall). The alveoli lumen (inside) is where the air actually is. There is no cilia in alveoli.
Septal Cells and Macrophages
Septal Cells: produces surfactant that increases moisture of alveoli and membranes and the solubility of oxygen.
Macrophages: immune cells that take out particles within alveoli (that made it through the conducting zone)
Respiration vs. Ventilation and Boyle’s Law
Ventilation is just the movement of air, but respiration is the diffusion of it from alveoli to capillary.
Boyle’s law: volume of gas (in a vessel) varies inversely with its pressure.
Inhalation/Inspiration
Active process, diaphragm contracts and flattens, intercoastal muscles contract, chest expands, lungs go outward, all of this allows for air to go into lungs.
Exhalation
Passive process, diaphragm and intercoastal muscles relax, thoracic cavity decreases in size, and the pressure causes air to go out of lungs.
Chemoreceptors
In the brain stem, carotid arteries, and aorta, they detect the oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
External Respiration vs. Internal Respiration and Cellular Respiration
External: Exchange of gases between the alveoli and capillaries
Internal: Exchange of gases between capillaries and the body’s tissues
Cellular Respiration: process of making ATP, it creates CO2 which creates a slight pressure gradient.
Dalton’s Law
Gases move independently of each other down their pressure gradient.
Apnea
breathing stops shortly and resumes spontaneously
Hypoxia
When tissues are short of oxygen. It leads to hyperventilation (when the brain tells your body to breath faster and deeper)
Nitrogen Narcosis and Decompression Sickness
Nitrogen Narcosis: aka ruptures of the deep, is commonly found in divers who are taking in a large amount of nitrogen. It is like a drunken feeling
Decompression Sickness: when divers go up too quickly, the nitrogen in their blood forms bubbles and hurts them.
Sinusitis
Inflammation of the sinuses. Acute is usually caused by a cold and can go away over time. Chronic is more severe and can happen from allergies, asthma, or a compromised immune system.
Bronchitis
Constrictive disease, inflammation of the mucous membrane surrounding the bronchi
Acute: caused by viruses or bacteria
Chronic: caused by smoking, can last for years
Asthma
Constrictive disease, bronchioles narrow and mucous clogs the bronchioles.
Pulmonary Fibrosis
The lungs become more collagen and less elastic.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
It is emphysema and chronic bronchitis, the major cause is smoking.
Emphysema
Continued inflammation and scar tissue, alveoli surrounded by more stiffer fibrous tissue, and a decreased gas exchange.
Cystic Fibrosis
Genetic disorder, makes sticky thick mucous instead of runny mucous. This traps bacteria in bronchial tree.
Pneumonia
called streptococcus pneumoniae, inflammation of the lung tissue, and it is 50% resistant to antibiotics
Influenza
caused by a virus and can lead to SARS, severe acute respiratory syndrome.
Tuberculosis
Destroys patches of lungs, left untreated it is fatal
Histoplasmosis
Caused by fungus, inflammation of lungs, can lead to blindness
Lung Cancer (4 types)
- Squamos Cell Carcinomas (33%) in the bronchi
- Adenocarcinomas
- Large-cell carcinomas
- Small-cell carcinomas (most aggressive)
