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Biology II > Exam 3: Animal Form & Function > Flashcards

Exam 3: Animal Form & Function Flashcards

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0
Q

what is an aggregation of tissues into a larger functional unit?

A

organ

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1
Q

what are the 5 levels of organization?

A 
cellular
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
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2
Q

what is a series of organs functioning together?

A

organ system

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3
Q

what are the 10 parts of an organ system?

A 
integumentary
digestive
nervous
muscular/skeleton
circulatory
respiratory
excretory (urinary)
endocrine
reproductive
immune/lymphatic
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4
Q

which system is the outer covering of the body that is mostly for protection? i.e. skin, hair, scales, feathers

A

integumentary

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5
Q

what are the 3 major functions of the digestive system?

A

breakdown of solid food materials
waste elimination
nutrient absorption

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6
Q

which system is the coordination of body activities? i.e. communication and balance

A

nervous

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7
Q

what is the skeleton for?

A

body support

locomotion

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8
Q

what are the muscles for?

A

to move the skeleton for locomotion

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9
Q

which system deals with the transport if solutes through the animal’s body? i.e. blood stream, heart, and vessels

A

circulatory

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10
Q

which system is involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment?

A

respiratory

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11
Q

which system is the elimination of liquid waste and fluid regulation?

A

excretory/urinary

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12
Q

which system is the hormonal control of the body?

A

endocrine

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13
Q

which system produces male and female gametes?

A

reproductive

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14
Q

which system is the defense against pathogens and invaders?

A

immune/lymphatic

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15
Q

what is anatomy?

A

the structure of the body

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16
Q

what is physiology?

A

the function of the body

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17
Q

how many cell types do humans have?

A

over 200

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18
Q

what are the 4 basic tissue types?

A

epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous

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19
Q

describe epithelial tissue

4 points

A

in sheets
covers/lines surfaces and cavities
cells are tightly packed
separated from underlying connective tissue by basal lamin

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20
Q

what is the basal lamin?

A

the basement membrane

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21
Q

what are the 2 classifications for epithelial tissue?

A

number of cell layers

morphology/shape of cells

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22
Q

when dealing with cell layers, what are the two types of epithelium?

A

simple

stratified

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23
Q

how many cell layers are in simple epithelium?

A

one

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24
Q

how many cell layers are in stratified epithelium?

A

2 or more

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25
Q

what are the 3 different shapes of epithelium?

A

squamous
cuboidal
columnar

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26
Q

which cell shapes have a cell in the center?

A

squamous

cuboidal

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27
Q

which cell shape had a cell in the bottom?

A

columnar

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28
Q

which shell shape is flat? cubed/square? column?

A

squamous
cuboidal
columnar

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29
Q

what are the 8 types of epithelium?

A 
simple squamous
simple cuboidal
simple columnar
pseudostratified columnar
stratified squamous
stratified cuboidal
stratified columnar
transitional epithelium
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30
Q

Which type of epithelium is single layer of flat cells?

A

simple squamous

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31
Q

what are the 3 functions of simple squamous epithelium?

A

absorption
secretion
material exchange

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32
Q

which type of epithelium is a single layer of square cells?

A

simple cuboidal

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33
Q

what are the 3 functions of simple cuboidal epithelium?

A

absorption
secretion
sometimes transport

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34
Q

what type of epithelium is a single layer of rectangular/columnar cells?

A

simple columnar

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35
Q

what are the 3 functions of simple columnar epithelium?

A

absorption
secretion
protection

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36
Q

is pseudostratified columnar epithelium simple or stratified?

A

simple

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37
Q

what type of epithelium are all cells in contact with basal lamina?

A

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

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38
Q

in pseudostratified columnar epithelium, are cells the same height or do they vary?

A

vary

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39
Q

what are the 3 functions of pseudostratified columnar epithelium?

A

secretion
absorption
protection

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40
Q

what type of epithelium are outer cells that are dead and are then replaced by keratin?

A

stratified squamous epithelium

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41
Q

when cells are older, what are they replaced by?

A

keratin

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42
Q

what is the function of stratified squamous cells?

A

protection

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43
Q

how many cells thick are stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar?

A

2-3

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44
Q

what are the 2 functions of stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar epithelium?

A

transport

barrier

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45
Q

what type of epithelium has multiple layers of stretchable/flexible cells?

A

transitional

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46
Q

where is transitional epithelium found?

A

layering of urinary bladder

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47
Q

what type of tissue connect, bind, anchor, and support structures?

A

connective tissues

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48
Q

what are the 6 types of connective tissues?

A 
loose (areolar)
dense
cartilage
bone
adipose
blood
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49
Q

what connective tissue holds internal organs in place and provides support for the integument?

A

loose

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50
Q

what connective tissue is for strength and support?

A

dense

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51
Q

what parts of the body are dense connective tissues?

A

tendons

ligaments

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52
Q

what type of connective tissue is for support, strength, flexibility?

A

cartilage

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53
Q

what connective tissue is for support and protection?

A

bone

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54
Q

what is adipose?

A

fat

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55
Q

what is the purpose of adipose tissue?

A

storage of fat
protection
energy storage
insulation

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56
Q

what are the 2 functions of blood?

A

transport

protection

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57
Q

what are the 3 muscle tissues?

A

skeletal
smooth
cardiac

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58
Q

is skeletal muscle voluntary or involuntary?

A

voluntary

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59
Q

is smooth muscle voluntary or involuntary?

A

involuntary

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60
Q

is cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary?

A

involuntary

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61
Q

what is the purpose of cardiac muscle?

A

pumping blood

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62
Q

what organ is made of cardiac muscle?

A

heart

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63
Q

what makes up the central nervous system?

A

brain and spinal cord

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64
Q

what makes up nervous tissue?

A

neurons

neuroglial cells

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65
Q

what are neurons?

A

nerve cells

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66
Q

what provides nutrition for neurons?

A

neuroglial cells

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67
Q

what tissues make up organs?

A

connective
smooth muscle
nervous
epithelial

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68
Q

what are organ systems for?

A

structure

function

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69
Q

what makes up the integumentary system in vertebrates?

A

skin and all other accessories such as hair

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70
Q

what is the largest vertebrate organ?

A

skin

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71
Q

what are the 6 functions of skin?

A 
protection
prevents water loss
barrier to pathogens
temperature regulation
sensory reception
excretion
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72
Q

how many layers of skin are there?

A

2

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73
Q

what are the 2 layers of skin?

A

epidermis

dermis

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74
Q

what is the epidermis?

A

an outer, thinner layer of skin

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75
Q

what is the dermis?

A

inner, thicker layer of skin

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76
Q

what is the epidermis composed of?

A

stratified squamous epithelium

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77
Q

what are defensive cells called?

A

langerhans cells

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78
Q

what do melanocytes produce?

A

pigment melana

some UV protection

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79
Q

what are touch receptive cells?

A

merkel cells

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80
Q

what are keratinocytes?

A

keratin

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81
Q

which is thicker, the epidermis or the dermis?

A

dermis

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82
Q

what kind of vascular system does the dermis have?

A

highly vascularized

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83
Q

what is associated with light-touch sensation?

A

meissner’s corpuscles

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84
Q

what is associated with deep pressure vibration sensors?

A

pacinian corpuscles

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85
Q

what is associated with dermis and temperature regulation?

A

sweat glands

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86
Q

how many sweat glands are there?

A

2.5 million

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87
Q

what do sweat glands secrete? what do they release?

A

ions and water

heat

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88
Q

what produces sebum?

A

sebaceous glands

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89
Q

sebaceous glands are in the entire body except for which part?

A

palms and soles of feet

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90
Q

is the hypodermis part of the skin?

A

no

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91
Q

what does hypodermis mean?

A

below dermis

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92
Q

what is the hypodermis support for?

A

skin

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93
Q

what does the hypodermis store?

A

fats (adipose tissue)

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94
Q

what is holding in heat?

A

insulation

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95
Q

does the hypodermis provide softness or hardness?

A

softness

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96
Q

READ INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PDF

A

READ INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PDF

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97
Q

LOOK AT MUSCLE TISSUE PICTURES IN NOTES

A

LOOK AT MUSCLE TISSUE PICTURES IN NOTES

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98
Q

Are animals are autotrophic or heterotrophic?

A

heterotrophic

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99
Q

what is needed for survival, maintenance, growth, and reproduction?

A

food

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100
Q

what is the order of what needs the least amount of food to the most?

A

survival
maintenance
growth
reproduction

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101
Q

what are the 2 types of gut tract?

A

blind gut

tube within a tube arrangement

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102
Q

which gut has no body cavity between gut and body wall?

A

blind gut

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103
Q

what does the one opening in a blind gut serve as?

A

the entrance for food and exit for waste

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104
Q

in a tube within a tube digestive tract, how many openings are there?

A

one at each end

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105
Q

which gut is a fluid filled body cavity(coelom) between gut and body wall?

A

tube within a tube

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106
Q

what are 5 the digestive enzymes?

A 
hydrolase
carbohydrase
protease
lipase
nuclease
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107
Q

what is the purpose of hydrolase?

A

to split chemical bonds by adding water

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108
Q

after chemical bonds are split, how is water regenerated?

A

metabolically

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109
Q

what is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller forms?

A

digestion

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110
Q

what is chemical digestion?

A

water and enzymes

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111
Q

what is the breaking of large to small things by mechanical and physical features?

A

mechanical digestion

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112
Q

what is the uptake of digestive food by cells lining the gut tract?

A

absorption

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113
Q

what is the movement of ingested materials through the gut tract?

A

transport

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114
Q

what is the removal of undigested or unabsorbed materials?

A

elimination/excretion

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115
Q

what is the digestive tract or tube/ GI?

A

alimentary canal

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116
Q

what are parts of the region of reception?

A

buccal cavity (mouth & accessories)

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117
Q

what kind of digestion used in the buccal cavity?

A

chemical and mechanical

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118
Q

what enzyme is used in the salivary glands?

A

amylase

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119
Q

what is the point that the digestive system and respiratory system cross paths?

A

pharynx

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120
Q

where is the pharynx?

A

back of the mouth

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121
Q

what breaks down starch?

A

alpha amylase

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122
Q

what is in the region of conduction?

A

esophagus

peristalsis

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123
Q

what is the tube leading from the back of the mouth to the stomach?

A

esophagus

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124
Q

what is a rhythmic wave like contraction to propel food forward in the gut tract?

A

peristalsis

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125
Q

what is the function of the region of storage and digestion?

A

temporary storage

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126
Q

what is a crop?

A

extra storage before the stomach in insects and birds

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127
Q

what is the enlarges portion of the esophagus?

A

crop

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128
Q

what is the stomach rugae lined with?

A

epithelium

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129
Q

what type of muscle is the wall of the stomach?

A

smooth

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130
Q

how many layers are in the wall of the stomach?

A

3

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131
Q

in the wall of the stomach, how do the muscles look?

A

vertical, horizontal, vertical

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132
Q

when the stomach is contracting what kind of movements does it make?

A

churning (like a mixer)

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133
Q

what begins the chemical digestion and protein digestion?

A

enzymes

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134
Q

what is the inner lining of the stomach made of?

A

epithelium with pits and glands

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135
Q

what type of cells secrete mucous to help keep what’s inside moist?

A

mucous cells

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136
Q

what type of cells secrete pepsinogen?

A

chief cells

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137
Q

what type of cells secrete HCl?

A

parietal cells

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138
Q

what is the digestive juice and controls food cleaning?

A

HCl

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139
Q

what makes up pepsin?

A

pepsinogen and HCl

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140
Q

what is pepsin?

A

an enzyme for proteins

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141
Q

what is in the lumen of the stomach?

A

pepsinogen and HCl (pepsin)

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142
Q

what has minimal absorption?

A

lipid soluble material such as aspirin or alchol

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143
Q

what is the region of terminal digestion and absorption?

A 
small intestines (vertebrates)
midgut (insects)
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144
Q

what begins and ends in the small intestine?

A

chemical digestions of lipids and nucleic acids

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145
Q

what is continuous and completed in the small intestine?

A

chemical digestion of carbohydrates and proteins

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146
Q

what are the 3 regions of the small intestine?

A

duodenum
jejunum
ileum

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147
Q

what is the beginning region of the small intestine? what attaches to the SI?

A

duodenum

stomach

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148
Q

which region has many secretions dumped into it?

A

duodenum

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149
Q

what is the small intestine lined with? why?

A

epithelium

for absorption

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150
Q

what does surface modification do for absorption?

A

increases the surface area

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151
Q

what are the 3 surface modifications?

A

plicae circulares
villus (villi)
microvilli

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152
Q

which surface modification is in folds?

A

plicae circulares

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153
Q

how many times does the plicae circulares increase surface area?

A

2-3

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154
Q

what surface modification are finger-like projections of intestinal lining?

A

villi (singular- villus)

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155
Q

how many times does villi increase surface area?

A

10

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156
Q

which surface modification is the folding of the plasma membrane of cells lining villus?

A

microvilli

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157
Q

how many times does surface area increase with microvilli?

A

20

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158
Q

LOOK AT PICTURES OF SURFACE MODIFICATIONS!!

A

LOOK AT PICTURES OF SURFACE MODIFICATIONS!!

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159
Q

What is in the region of water absorption and concentration of solids?

A 
large intestine (vertebrates)
hind gut (insects)
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160
Q

how long is the the large intestine in mammals?

A

1.5 M

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161
Q

what is the large intestine lacking when compared to the small intestine?

A

plicae, villi, microvilli

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162
Q

what is the large intestine lined with?

A

simple epithelial lining

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163
Q

where is water absorbed through?

A

epithelium

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164
Q

what are the 2 functions of the large intestine?

A

water absorption and compaction/elimination of feces

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165
Q

what are the wastes that come out of the large intestine? how much of each?

A 
water- 75%
inorganic substances- 5%
fat- 5%
undigested protein, bile, dead cells- 7%
roughage- 8%
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166
Q

what waste from the large intestine helps clean the system?

A

roughage

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167
Q

what is vitamin synthesis done by?

A

bacteria

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168
Q

what is the opening to the outside in the large intestine?

A

anus

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169
Q

what chamber receives contents of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts?

A

cloaca

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170
Q

what are the accessory digestive glands part of?

A

the system, not the tube

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171
Q

what secretes enzymes and releases into the duodenum?

A

pancreas

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172
Q

what produces bile?

A

liver

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173
Q

what breaks down large fat globules?

A

bile

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174
Q

what 4 components make up bile?

A

carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
nucleic acids

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175
Q

what stores bile?

A

gall bladder

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176
Q

where does the gall bladder release bile?

A

duodenum

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177
Q

what type of carbohydrates are in the digestive system?

A

polysaccharides- mono and disaccharides

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178
Q

what type of proteins are in the digestive system?

A

polypeptides- amino acids

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179
Q

what type of fats are in the digestive system?

A

glycerol

fatty acids

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180
Q

what type of nucleic acids are in the digestive system?

A

nucelotides

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181
Q

what are most breakdowns due to?

A

enzymes

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182
Q

what do enzymes do?

A

speed up chemical reactions to occur at biological temperatures

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183
Q

which system is the nervous system closely tied to?

A

sensory system

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184
Q

what is the brain to spinal cord ratio for mass in fish, reptiles, and humans?

A

2: 1
25: 1
55: 1

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185
Q

if the brain to spinal cord ration is bigger, what becomes better?

A

communication coordinator

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186
Q

what is in the peripheral nervous system?

A

all neurons outside of CNS and projections

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187
Q

in invertebrates is the peripheral nervous system simple or complex? is it easy or difficult to distinguish the difference between CNS and PNS?

A

simple

difficult

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188
Q

what are the structural and functional units of the nervous system?

A

neurons

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189
Q

what are the 2 functions of neurons?

A

receive and carry signals

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190
Q

what is the structure of a neuron?

3 things

A

soma
dendrites
axons

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191
Q

what is the cell body that has a nucleus and organelles in a neuron?

A

soma

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192
Q

what are extensions of plasma membrane and pick up incoming signals in a neuron?

A

dendrites

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193
Q

what are extensions of the plasma membrane and send and carry away signals in a neuron?

A

axons

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194
Q

LOOK AT PAGE 852- NEURON!!!!

A

LOOK AT PAGE 852- NEURON!!!!

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195
Q

What type of cells support functions?

A

glial cells

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196
Q

which is more numerous, glial cells or neurons? by how much?

A

glial cells

1,000 times

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197
Q

what 2 things produce myelin sheath? where are they at?

A 
oligdendrocytes (CNS)
schwan cells (PNS)
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198
Q

what type of cells remove cellular debris (dead cells, ruptured cells, and damaged cells)?

A

microglial cells

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199
Q

what produces more nervous tissue, new neurons, and more glial cells?

A

stem cells

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200
Q

what 2 things make up a stem cell?

A

astrocytes

radial glial cells

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201
Q

what provides metabolic support and also provides nutrition for neurons?

A

astrocytes

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202
Q

what cells lay out a pathway for the nervous system during embryonic development?

A

radial glial cells

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203
Q

what are the 3 types of neurons?

A

sensory
motor
interneurons

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204
Q

which type of neurons detect conditions from the outside world or internal body conditions?

A

sensory

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205
Q

what does afferent mean? what neuron is afferent?

A

transmitting info to CNS

sensory

206
Q

what type of neuron sends signals away from CNS to elicit response?

A

motor

207
Q

what do motor neurons carry?

A

message from CNS

208
Q

are motor neurons afferent or efferent?

A

efferent

209
Q

what type of neurons form interconnections between other neurons?

A

interneurons

210
Q

what type of neuron is the reflex arc? is voluntary or involuntary?

A

interneuron

involuntary

211
Q

where does the reflex arc go from?

A

from receptor to CNS

212
Q

LOOK AT REFLEX ARC DRAWING!!!

A

LOOK AT REFLEX ARC DRAWING!!!

213
Q

What 2 things generate electrical signals?

A

neurons and muscle cells

214
Q

what is the gate keeper?

A

membrane

215
Q

what is the difference in charge between inside and outside of the cell?

A

membrane potential

216
Q

does ion concentration differ?

A

yes, chemically

217
Q

is the cell polarized or non-polarized?

A

polarized

218
Q

what is it called when the neurons are not sending signals?

A

resting membrane potential

219
Q

what kind of permeability does the resting membrane have? what is in it?

A

selectively

cations and anions

220
Q

which part, inside or outside, does the membrane have more anions? cations?

A

inside

outside

221
Q

what are 3 factors contributing to resting potential?

A

sodium- potassium pump
ion specific channels allowing passive ion movement
more negatively charged ions inside the cell

222
Q

how many sodiums and potassiums are pumped put in the sodium-potassium pump?

A

3 Na

2 K

223
Q

is a membrane more permeable to Na or K?

A

K

224
Q

which channels, Na or K, are most frequently open at resting potential?

A

K

225
Q

when there is no net movement, opposing forces of electro/chemical can cause what?

A

equilibrium

226
Q

what is created between the inside and outside of cell?

A

imbalance

227
Q

what is imbalance due to?

A

ion and chemical movement

228
Q

what chemicals are in chemical movement?

A

K, Na, Cl

229
Q

changes in membrane potential are changes in what?

A

degree of polarization

230
Q

what moves in during depolarization?

A

Na

231
Q

what moves out during hyperpolariztion?

A

K

232
Q

in depolarization, movement becomes more or less positive?

A

more

233
Q

in hyperpolarization, movement becomes more or less positive?

A

less

234
Q

in depolarization, membrane becomes more or less negative?

A

less negative

235
Q

in hyperpolarization, membrane becomes more or less negative?

A

more

236
Q

do all cells exhibit membrane potential?

A

yes

237
Q

what 2 things are excitable? what does this mean?

A

neurons and muscle cells

capacity to generate electrical signals

238
Q

what are the 2 uses of gated ion channels?

A

voltage and ligand

239
Q

which gated ion channel opens and closes in response to voltage changes?

A

voltage-gated

240
Q

which gated ion channel opens and closes in response to chemicals?

A

ligand-gated

241
Q

what is the language of nerve impulse?

A

frequency

242
Q

when frequency is higher, what is greater?

A

excitation

243
Q

what are the 3 types of nerve impulses?

A

resting potential
action potential
sodium/potassium pump

244
Q

what is it when there is an imbalance between K and Na, and between the inside and outside axon?

A

resting potential

245
Q

at rest, what channels are closed?

A

K, Na, Cl

246
Q

what is the rapid/brief change of nerve fiber?

A

action potential

247
Q

what is the electric potential of impulse?

A

action potential

248
Q

since action potential starts and never stops, what is it called?

A

self-propagating

249
Q

once action potential is finished, where does the membrane return?

A

resting potential

250
Q

why does K diffuse out?

A

electrical gradient changes

251
Q

what does pumping out Na and pumping in K require?

A

ATP

252
Q

what is a complex of proteins in membranes?

A

sodium/potassium pump

253
Q

LOOK AT IMPULSE CONDUCTION RATE!!!

A

LOOK AT IMPULSE CONDUCTION RATE!!!

254
Q

What is a junction or gap where the terminal end of an axon meets another neuron, muscle cell, or gland?

A

synapses

255
Q

do axons and neurons touch?

A

no

256
Q

what are the gaps in the myelin sheath called?

A

nodes of raavier

257
Q

when an impulse jumps the gaps, what is that called?

A

saltatorial conduction

258
Q

what are the 2 types of synapses?

A

electric and chemical

259
Q

which type of synapses is more common?

A

chemical

260
Q

which type of synapses is faster?

A

electrical

261
Q

LOOK AT PRE-SYNAPTIC NEURON!!!

A

LOOK AT PRE-SYNAPTIC NEURON!!!

262
Q

Which phylum has the simplest neural organization?

A

cnidaria

263
Q

are impulses one one?

A

no, they are part of nerve nets

264
Q

explain nervous system of phylum Platyhelminthes

A

2 anteria ganglia (each has a network branching off)
weakly developed CNS and PNS
no brain or spinal cord
mostly 1-way impulses

265
Q

explain nervous system of phylum Annelida

A

motor & sensory neurons
primitive cells
brain
ventral nerve cord

266
Q

explain nervous system of phylum Mollusca

A

most complex of invertebrates (non-chordate)

267
Q

explain nervous system of phylum Anthropoda

A

similar to annelida
well developed brain (parts)
good with social behavior, learning, division of labor

268
Q

what is the spinal cord in vertebrates like?

A

dorsal, hollow, within vertebral column

269
Q

what are the 3 layers of the spinal cord? which is the outer, inner, and middle?

A

duramater- outer
arachnoid- middle
piamater- inner

270
Q

what is between each spinal cord layer and in the hollow canal?

A

cerebrospinal fluid

271
Q

how has the brain change in size and complexity?

A

increase in size and complexity with vertebral column

272
Q

what does the nervous system develop from?

A

neural fold in embryo

273
Q

where is the greatest change in the brain?

A

cerebrum (fore-brain)

274
Q

when does the brain change?

A

in embryonic development

275
Q

where does the brain change?

A

in sections or parts

276
Q

what are the 3 divisions of the vertebrate brain?

A

hindbrain
midbrain
forebrain

277
Q

LOOK AT BRAIN PICTURES!!!

A

LOOK AT BRAIN PICTURES!!!

278
Q

What does the vertebrae enclose?

A

spinal cord

279
Q

what is the function of the vertebrae?

A

protection

280
Q

what is the extension of the spinal cord and beginning of hind brain?

A

medulla oblongata

281
Q

what is the medulla oblongata associated with?

4 things

A

heart rate
breathing
metabolism
digestion

282
Q

what is the extension of the brain stem/stalk?

A

midbrain region

283
Q

what is the dorsal side of the midbrain in the medulla?

A

cerebellum

284
Q

what is the cerebellum involved in?

3 things

A

equilibrium
balance
movement

285
Q

what functions as a relay station sending messages to higher brain centers?

A

thalamus

286
Q

what is the little know above the nasal cavity?

A

pituitary gland

287
Q

wha kind of gland is the pituitary gland?

A

hormonal

288
Q

what is the housekeeping center?

A

hypothalamus

289
Q

what is the hypothalamus involved with?

4 things

A

appetite
thirst
water balance
temperature

290
Q

where is the hypothalamus?

A

below the thalamus

291
Q

what kind of gland is the hypothalamus?

A

hormonal

292
Q

what is a band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right sides of the cerebrum?

A

corpus callosum

293
Q

what is the purpose of the corpus callosum?

A

speeding up the sending of messages

294
Q

where is the corpus callosum found? What is it thickest in?

A

mammals

humans

295
Q

what is the largest part of the brain?

A

cerebrum

296
Q

what is the cerebrum important for?

A

learning
language
vision
math and art skill

297
Q

what are the 4 functions of the endoskeleton?

A

protection of body parts
provides attachment site for skeletal muscle
storage of calcium and other minerals
blood cell production

298
Q

what kind of tissue is bone tissue?

A

connective

299
Q

list 4 properties about bones

A

strong
lightweight
flexible
depository of minerals

300
Q

what 2 minerals are deposited in bone?

A

calcium salts

phosphorus salts

301
Q

what are the 2 types of bone formation?

A

endochondral

intramembranous

302
Q

what is enchondral bone formation?

A

when bone replace cartilage

303
Q

what is intramembranous formation?

A

bone forms inside/within membranes of connective tissue

304
Q

what are the 2 types of bone tissue?

A

compact

spongy

305
Q

which type of bone tissue has osteons?

A

compact

306
Q

what is the functional and structural unit of compact bone?

A

osteons

307
Q

is compact bone light or heavy?

A

heavy

308
Q

describe spongy bone

3 things

A

bony spikes

lots of air spaces lightweight

309
Q

LOOK AT BONE ANATOMY!!!!

A

LOOK AT BONE ANATOMY!!!!

310
Q

What is the protective membrane on the external surface of the bone except for the very ends?

A

periosteum

311
Q

what ensures that the bone doesn’t rub against bone?

A

articular cartilage

312
Q

what type of cartilage is articular cartilage?

A

hyaline

313
Q

what are the 4 types of bone cells?

A

osteoprogenitor
osteoblasts
osteocytes
osteoclasts

314
Q

which bone cell is within the periosteum and will differentiate into osteoblasts?

A

osteoprogenitor

315
Q

which bone cell are bone forming cells that produce dense or compact bone?

A

osteoblasts

316
Q

which bone cell is a mature osteoblast that is “trapped” in bone tissue and are cells within the bone?

A

osteocytes

317
Q

which bone cells are bone resorbing cells that breakdown and absorb bone tissue?

A

osteoclasts

318
Q

LOOK AT MICROSCOPE ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE!!!

A

LOOK AT MICROSCOPE ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE!!!

319
Q

What is the most oriented parallel to ling axis of the bone?

A

osteons

320
Q

what is the central hole within an osteon?

A

osteonic canal

321
Q

what is the osteonic canal a pathway for?

3 things

A

blood vessels
lymphatics
nerves

322
Q

what are connective rings of bone tissue?

A

lamella

323
Q

what are the spaces between lamellae where osteocytes are located?

A

lacunae

324
Q

what are microscopic canals that connect lacunae to lacunae and lacunae to the osteonic canal?

A

canaliculi

325
Q

what are the 2 parts/regions of a skeleton?

A

axial and appendicular

326
Q

what is the central axis of the body?

A

axial skeleton

327
Q

what are 4 parts of the axial skeleton?

A

skull
ribs
sternum
vertebral column

328
Q

what are the 6 parts of the vertebrae?

A 
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacral
caudal
329
Q

what is part of the caudal?

A

coccyx

330
Q

what part of the vertebrae is the neck?

A

cervical

331
Q

what part of the vertebrae is the upper back/chest?

A

thoracic

332
Q

what part of the vertebrae is the lower back?

A

lumbar

333
Q

what part of the vertebrae is the hip?

A

sacral

334
Q

what part of the vertebrae is the tail?

A

caudal

335
Q

what part of the vertebrae is the tail bone?

A

coccyx

336
Q

why is the axial skeleton flexible?

A

support and protection of nerve cord

337
Q

what are 3 parts of the appendicular skeleton?

A

bones of appendages
pelvic girdle
pectoral girdle

338
Q

what region is the pectoral girdle?

A

shoulder

339
Q

what does the pectoral girdle attach?

A

front appendages to axial skeleton

340
Q

what is in the pectoral girdle?

A

2 scapulas

2 clavicles

341
Q

what is the pelvic girdle fused to?

A

lower vertebral column

342
Q

what does the pelvic girdle attach?

A

hind appendages to axial skeleton

343
Q

what is the pelvic girdle?

A

pelvic bones

344
Q

READ EXAMPLES OF PECTORAL AND PELVIC GIRDLE!!!

A

READ EXAMPLES OF PECTORAL AND PELVIC GIRDLE!!!

345
Q

what are the 2 types appendages?

A

forelimb bones

hindlimb bones

346
Q

what are the 5 parts of the forelimb bones?

A 
humerus
radius and ulna
carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
347
Q

what is the largest bone?

A

humerus

348
Q

what is the forearm?

A

radius and ulna

349
Q

what is the wrist?

A

carpals

350
Q

what is the hand?

A

metacarpals

351
Q

what are the fingers?

A

phalanges

352
Q

what do the forelimb bones make up? hindlimb bones?

A

arms

legs

353
Q

what are the 6 parts of the hindlimb bones?

A 
femur
patella
tibia and fibula
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
354
Q

what is the largest bone in the body?

A

femur

355
Q

what is the thigh?

A

femur

356
Q

what is the knee cap?

A

patella

357
Q

what is below the knee/ shin region?

A

tibia and fibula

358
Q

what is the ankle?

A

tarsals

359
Q

what is the foot?

A

metatarsals

360
Q

what enhances movements?

A

joints

361
Q

what are 3 examples of joints?

A

ankle
wrist
shoulder

362
Q

what do joints help with?

A

better contact with substrate

363
Q

what 3 things allow for more advanced locomotor skills?

A

joints
bones
skeletal muscles

364
Q

what is another name for the circulatory system?

A

cardiovascular system

365
Q

what system involves the movement of materials through the body?

A

circulatory system

366
Q

what type of tissue is blood?

A

connective

367
Q

what is blood used as?

A

transporting mechanism

368
Q

what are the 2 major parts of blood?

A

plasma

formed elements

369
Q

how much of blood’s volume is plasma?

A

55%

370
Q

how much of plasma is water?

A

90%

371
Q

what is the other 10% of plasma made of?

9 things

A 
proteins
amino acids
glucose
enzymes
hormones
dissolved gases
intracellular fluids
extracellular fluids
interstitial fluids
372
Q

what is fluid within the cell?

A

intracellular fluid

373
Q

what is fluid outside the cell?

A

extracellular fluid

374
Q

what is fluid between the cells and is tissue fluid?

A

interstitial fluid

375
Q

what are cells or cell features?

A

formed elements

376
Q

what are the 3 formed elements?

A

platelets
leukocytes
erythrocytes

377
Q

which formed element deals with clotting?

A

platelets

378
Q

what are leukocytes?

A

white blood cells

379
Q

list 3 characteristics of leukocytes

A

nucleated
7,000 per cc of blood
body’s immune response

380
Q

what are the 5 types of leukocytes?

A 
neutrophils
lymphocytes
monocytes
eosinophils
basophils
381
Q

which leukocyte eats other cells?

A

neutrophils

382
Q

which leukocyte is the first group of white blood cells to enter an inflamed area?

A

neutrophils

383
Q

which leukocyte has b-cells and t-cells and are involved with immunity?

A

lymphocytes

384
Q

where are b-cells produced?

A

bone marrow

385
Q

where are b-cells highly developed?

A

plasma

386
Q

where are t-cells?

A

thymus

387
Q

what do t-cells do?

A

kill cancer cells

388
Q

which leukocyte are cell eaters?

A

monocytes

389
Q

which leukocyte limits inflammation?

A

eosinophils

390
Q

which leukocyte limits inflammation and regulate permeability of blood cells?

A

basophils

391
Q

what are erythrocytes?

A

red blood cells

392
Q

are erythrocytes nucleated or anucleated?

A

anucleated

393
Q

what are erythrocytes involved in?

A

transport of oxygen

394
Q

where are erythrocytes produced?

A

red marrow

395
Q

what is the life span of a erythrocyte?

A

120 days

396
Q

how many erythrocytes are there per cc of blood?

A

5,000,000

397
Q

what do erythrocytes contain?

A

hemoglobin

398
Q

what is an iron containing protein that binds oxygen?

A

hemoglobin

399
Q

how many hemoglobin molecules are in each red blood cell?

A

200,000

400
Q

how many depressions are there in a red blood cell? what is this called?

A

2

biconcave

401
Q

what are blood vessels?

A

tubes carrying blood

402
Q

what are blood vessels lines with?

A

simple squamous epithelium

403
Q

what are the 3 major groups of blood vessels?

A

arteries (& arterioles)
capillaries
veins (& venules)

404
Q

what blood vessel carries blood away from the heart?

A

arteries

405
Q

which is thicker, veins or arteries?

A

arteries

406
Q

why are arteries thicker?

A

because of a greater pressure

407
Q

what kind of layer is an artery in the wall?

A

smooth muscle

408
Q

which blood vessel is the smallest diameter?

A

capillaries

409
Q

how are capillaries arranged? what is it called?

A

in clusters

capillary beds

410
Q

where does gas exchange occur?

A

capillaries

411
Q

how thick are capillaries?

A

1 cell thick (epithelium)

412
Q

is energy expended in gas exchange?

A

no

413
Q

where is the site of gas exchange?

A

between blood and organs

414
Q

what diffuses out of the vessel and what diffuses in during gas exchange?

A

oxygen-out

carbon dioxide- in

415
Q

what blood vessel carries blood toward the heart?

A

veins

416
Q

why are veins thinner?

A

no surging blood

low pressure

417
Q

do veins have valves? who has the best valve system?

A

some

mammals

418
Q

LOOK AT CROSS SECTION OF VESSELS!!!

A

LOOK AT CROSS SECTION OF VESSELS!!!

419
Q

what are all blood vessels lined with

A

simple squamous epithelium

420
Q

overall, a heart has increased in what/ decreased in what?

A

increased in number of chambers and in size

decreased in number of pseudochambers

421
Q

what kind of advances has the heart had?

A

evolutionary

422
Q

how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a fish heart?

A

2 chambers- atrium and ventricle

2 pseudochambers- conus arteriosus and sinus venosus

423
Q

how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in an amphibian heart?

A

3 chambers- 2 atria and 1 ventricle

2 pseudochambers- conus arteriosus and sinus venosus

424
Q

how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a reptile heart?

A

3 chambers- 2 atrium and 1 ventricle

1 or 0 pseudochambers- sinus venosus

425
Q

how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a crocadillian heart?

A

4 chambers- 2 atrium and 2 ventricle

0 pseudochambers

426
Q

how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a bird and mammal heart?

A

4 chambers- 2 atria and 2 ventricles

0 pseudochambers

427
Q

which do the cells in the right atrium make up?

A

pace maker

428
Q

what are the cells that make the pace maker?

A

remnants of sinus venosus

429
Q

LOOK AT HEART DIAGRAMS!!!

A

LOOK AT HEART DIAGRAMS!!!

430
Q

which chamber is thinner? thicker?

A

atrium

ventricle

431
Q

of the left and right ventricles, which is thicker?

A

left

432
Q

why is the left ventricle thicker?

A

it is the major pump for blood

433
Q

where dies the right ventricle conduct blood to?

A

lungs

434
Q

what is the pulmonary circuit? which ventricle?

A

heart to lungs to heart

right

435
Q

where does the left side of the heart conduct blood to?

A

the body

436
Q

what kind of circuit is it when blood is pumped to the body?

A

systemic

437
Q

what is the heart valve between the atrium and ventricle?

A

atrioventricular valves

438
Q

what is the function of the atrioventricular valves?

A

prevent the back flow of blood into the atrium as the ventricles contract

439
Q

what are the 2 types of heart valves?

A

atrioventricular valves

semilunar valves

440
Q

what are the 2 types of semilunar valves?

A

pulmonary

aortic

441
Q

which semilunar valve is at the junction of the right atrium and pulmonary arteries?

A

pulmonary SV

442
Q

which semilunar valve is at the junction of the left ventricle and aorta?

A

aortic SV

443
Q

what is the function of the semilunar valves?

A

prevent back flow into the ventricle when the ventricle relaxes

444
Q

what carries deoxygenated blood?

A

vena cavae

445
Q

LOOK AT PICTURE OF BLOOD FLOW!!!

A

LOOK AT PICTURE OF BLOOD FLOW!!!

446
Q

What initiates the heart beat?

A

sinoatrial nodes

447
Q

what are the sinoatrial nodes remnants of?

A

sinus venosus

448
Q

where are the sinoatrial nodes located?

A

inside the right atrium

449
Q

what is composed of specialized muscle cells?

A

nodal tissue

450
Q

what is the nodal tissue capable of?

A

spontaneous contraction

451
Q

does the modal tissue require input from the nervous system?

A

no

452
Q

what are all muscles specialized for?

A

contraction

453
Q

what is the function of muscle tissue?

A

movement

454
Q

what are the 4 characteristics of muscle tissue?

A

irritability
contractility
extensibility
elasticity

455
Q

what are the 3 types of muscle?

A

cardiac
smooth
skeletal

456
Q

how are muscles classified?

3 things

A 
structure
function
control mechanisms
457
Q

how is skeletal muscle formed?

A

by fusion of multiple cells in the embryo

458
Q

how are muscle fibers arranged?

A

parallel to each other

459
Q

what are 5 characteristics of muscle fibers?

A

long
multinucleated
voluntary
striated

460
Q

what does striated mean?

A

banded appearance

461
Q

what are the 3 connective tissue investments?

A

epimysium
perimysium
endomysium

462
Q

what is a collection of muscle fibers bound by connective tissue?

A

fascicle

463
Q

which connective tissue investment covers external surface of a muscle?

A

epimysium

464
Q

which connective tissue investment invades muscle and organizes muscle fibers into groups? what are these groups called?

A

perimysium

fascicles

465
Q

what is a collection of muscle fibers bound by connective tissue?

A

fascicle

466
Q

which connective tissue investment invades muscle fascicle and surrounds each muscle fiber?

A

endomysium

467
Q

what is an individual muscle cell?

A

muscle fiber

468
Q

what is a cylindrical bundle of contractile protein?

A

myofibrils

469
Q

what is tightly packed within myofibrils?

A

myofilaments

470
Q

what are the 3 thin filaments?

A

actin
tropomyosin
troponin

471
Q

which thin filament is formed by 2 intertwined helical chains?

A

actin

472
Q

what does each actin molecule contain?

A

a binding site

473
Q

which thin filament is a rope-like protein?

A

tropomyosin

474
Q

what does tropomyosin wrap around?

A

actin filament

475
Q

what does tropomyosin block?

A

myosin binding sites in relaxed muscle fibers

476
Q

what is the most complex of the 3 thin filaments?

A

troponin

477
Q

what are the 3 types of troponin?

A

TnI
TnT
TnC

478
Q

which troponin binds to actin?

A

TnI

479
Q

which troponin binds to tropomyosin?

A

TnT

480
Q

which troponin binds calcium?

A

TnC

481
Q

what is the thick filament?

A

myosin

482
Q

what is the shape of an individual myosin molecule?

A

golf-club shaped

483
Q

what is the structural and function unit of skeletal muscle?

A

sarcomere

484
Q

how far to myofibrils extend?

A

the entire length of muscle fiber

485
Q

do thick and thin filaments overlap? what does the arrangement impart?

A

yes

striated appearance

486
Q

what filament is anchored to the z-line?

A

actin

487
Q

what is the region of muscle fiber from z-line to z-line?

A

sarcomere

488
Q

what happens to sarcomeres when muscles contract?

A

they shorten

489
Q

what are proteins that anchor thin filaments?

A

z-line

490
Q

what contains portions of thin filaments that do not overlap thick filaments?

A

I Band

491
Q

what is a wide band of myosin?

A

A Band

492
Q

what is the narrow region in the center of the A Band and the space between the 2 sets of thin filaments?

A

H Zone

493
Q

what is in the center of the H Zone that links adjacent thick filaments?

A

M Line

494
Q

what is the plasma membrane of muscle fiber?

A

sarcolemma

495
Q

what is the invaginations of sarcolemma and allow for rapid spread of muscle action potentials?

A

transverse tubules

496
Q

what is a specialized endoplasmic reticulum and stores and releases calcium ions?

A

sarcoplasmic reticulum

497
Q

what is the sliding filament mechanism?

A

when sarcomeres shorten and thin filaments slide past stationary thick filaments

498
Q

what are the 4 sliding filament mechanisms?

A

calcium binding
power stroke
detachment
resetting

499
Q

what happens in calcium binding?

2 things

A

Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum

myosin heads bind to actin

500
Q

what 3 things happen during power stroke?

A

Pi released from myosin
myosin heads pull actin filaments inward
ADP released from myosin

501
Q

what 2 things happen during detachment?

A

ATP binds to myosin

myosin heads detach from actin

502
Q

what 3 things happen during resetting?

A

ATP –> ADP + Pi
provides energy to reposition myosin heads
ADP and Pi remain attached to myosin

503
Q

what is a neuron that transmits a signal from CNS for muscle contraction?

A

motor neuron

504
Q

what is the space between motor neuron and sarcolemma of muscle fiber?

A

synaptic cleft

505
Q

READ SYNAPTIC CLEFT EVENTS!!!

A

READ SYNAPTIC CLEFT EVENTS!!!

506
Q

READ CARDIAC MUSCLE!!!

A

READ CARDIAC MUSCLE!!!

507
Q

READ SMOOTH MUSCLE!!!

A

READ SMOOTH MUSCLE!!!

508
Q

what do dense bodies attach to?

A

sarcolemma

509
Q

wha do dense bodies function as?

A

z-line

510
Q

what inserts into dense bodies?

A

intermediate filaments and thin filaments

511
Q

what kind of appearance do contracting cells have?

A

corkscrew

512
Q

why do contracting cells have a corkscrew appearance?

A

interactions between dense bodies, thin filaments, and intermediate filaments

Biology II (4 decks)

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