Exam 3 Flashcards
Emotional map
dimensions
valence - how positive or negative the experience is
arousal - how active or passive the experience is
Emotion
positive or negative experience associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity
James-Lange theory of emotion
a stimulus triggers activity in the body, which produces an emotional experience in the mind
emotional experiences are consequences and not the cause of our body’s reactions to events in the world
stimulus activates ANS, which becomes a subjective experience
4 problems with James-Lange theory of emotion
emotional experiences happen more rapidly than bodily responses
people are not always aware of their bodily responses
all sorts of unemotional events can cause the body to respond
there are fewer unique physiological patterns of bodily activity than there are unique emotional experiences
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
a stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the body and emotional experience in the mind
stimulus activates ANS and leads directly to subjective experience
Two factor theory of emotion
stimulus triggers a general state of arousal in the body, which the mind then interprets a specific emotion
people have just one bodily reaction to all emotional stimuli, but they interpret that reaction differently on different occasions (this causes different emotions)
Appraisal
evaluation of the motion relevant aspects of a stimulus
amygdala, decides whether a stimulus is a threat or not
fast and slow pathways
Emotion regulation
strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience
Reappraisal
changing how you feel about something by changing how you think about it
Emotional expression
sign of emotion
Universality hypothesis
emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone
Facial feedback hypothesis
specific emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they represent
making a mad face can make you angry
Display rule
a norm for the appropriate expression of emotion
Motivation
psychological cause of an action
Hedonic principle
people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain
instincts and drives
Drive
internal states caused by physiological needs
Drive reduction theory
organisms are motivated to reduce their drives
Binge eating disorder (BED)
recurrent and uncontrolled episodes of consuming a large number of calories in a short time
Bulimia nervose
binge eating followed by compensatory behavior
eating then throwing up
Anorexia nervosa
intense fear of being overweight and a severe restriction of food
Metabolism
rate at which energy is used by the body
Intrinsic motivation
motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding
don’t have a payoff because they are a payoff
Extrinsic motivation
motivation to take actions that lead to reward
work hard for money to pay for rent
Rewards can
undermine intrinsic motivation
change intrinsic motivation to extrinsic motivation
Conscious motivations
motivations people are aware of
Unconscious motivations
motivations people are not aware of
Need for achievement
motivation to solve worthwhile problems
unconscious
Easy actions
we are aware of general motivations
* ex. be helpful
Difficult actions
we are aware of specific motivations
* ex. getting lightbulb threads aligned
Approach motivation
motivation to experience positive outcomes
something positive you’re attracted to
Avoidance motivation
motivation to avoid experiencing negative outcomes
something negative you stay away from
Loss aversion
tendency to care more about avoiding losses than about achieving equal-size gains
Terror management theory
how people respond to knowledge of they own mortality
suggests people develop a cultural worldview (set of beliefs about what is good/right/true)
Learning
involves the acquisition from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner
based on experience, learning produces change in the organism, and these changes are permanent
Habituation
repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding
Sensitization
presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus
Classical conditioning
occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
* ex: presentation of food
produces automatic, reflexive reaction
Unconditioned response (UR)
a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced an unconditioned stimulus
* ex: dogs’ salivation
automatic response
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
reaction that resembles in an organism after being paired with a US
* ex: ringing a bell
neutral stimulus doesn’t naturally produce any response
Conditioned response (CR)
reaction that resembles an unconditional response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
* ex: dogs’ salivation
learned response to neutral stimulus
Second-order conditioning
type of learning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an easier procedure (happens after conditioning has been established)
another CS is presented
Acquisition
phase of classical conditioning when the CS and US are presented together
starts low, rises rapidly, then slowly tapers off
learning the relationship between CS and US (repetition)
Extinction
gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US
loss of relationship between CS and US
Spontaneous recovery
tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
relationship wasn’t really lost
Generalization
CR is observed, even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition
conditioning generalizes to stimuli that are similar to the CS using during the original training
Discrimination
capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli
the more an organism shows either generalization or discrimination, they show less of the other; training can modify the balance between the two
Classical conditioning might be
a primitive process
Amygdala (known as the central nucleus) is also critical for
emotional conditioning
Classical conditioning is also used for evolutionary aspects
biological preparedness - propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others
Operant conditioning
type of learning where the consequences of an organism’s behavior determines whether it will repeat that behavior in the future
reinforcements and punishments
Instrumental behaviors
behavior required an organism to do something, solve a problem
Law of effect
behaviors are followed by something good tend to be repeated, and those that produce something unpleasant are less likely to be repeated
Pavlov’s experiment
same thing happened every time; Thorndike’s experiment - animal’s action determined what would happen next
Operant behavior
behavior that an organism performs that has some impact on the environment
Reinforcer
any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
Punisher
any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
Positive reinforcement
stimulus that is presented that increases the likelihood of a behavior
Negative reinforcement
stimulus that is removed that increases the likelihood of a behavior
Positive punishment
stimulus given that reduces the likelihood of a behavior
Negative punishment
stimulus removed that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Reinforcement is generally more effective than
punishment in promoting learning
Primary reinforcers
help satisfy biological needs
Secondary reinforcers
derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforces through classical conditioning
Determinant of the effectiveness of a reinforcer is
the amount of time between the occurrence of a behavior and the reinforcer
the more time elapses, the less effective the reinforcer
Schedules of reinforcement
interval schedule and tail schedule
Interval schedule
fixed schedule (FI) - reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made variable interval schedule (VI) behavior is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement both produce slow, methodical responding; reinforcements follow a time scale that is independent of how many responses occur
Ratio schedule
fixed ratio schedule (FR) - reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made
one might present reinforcement after every 4th response, or after 20 responses
variable ratio schedule (VR) - the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses
produce higher rates of responding than interval, because organism never knows when the reinforcement is going to appear
Intermittent reinforcement
only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement
* produce behavior much more resistant to extinction than a continuous reinforcement schedule
* intermittent reinforcement effect - operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement
takes longer but stays longer
Shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior
outcomes of one set of behaviors shapes the next set of behaviors, etc.
reinforce close behaviors
positive reinforcement is given for each of the steps needed to get closer to the final behavior
Cognitive elements of operant conditioning
- latent learning - occurs when something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future
- cognitive map - mental representation of the physical features of the environment
- “mental picture”
- cognitive map - mental representation of the physical features of the environment
Neural elements of operant conditioning
- brain structures contribute to process of reinforcement
* release of hormones (ex dopamine)
Evolutionary elements of operant conditioning
- adaptive value/survival
Observational Learning
an organism learns by watching the actions of others
* mirror neurons
Implicit learning
learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition
* some start out explicitly and become implicit over time * resistant to various disorders that are known to affect explicit learning * different structures of the brain are used for implicit learning (compared to explicit learning)
Massed practice
cramming
Distributed practice
learning over time
Judgements of learning
play a critical role in guiding further study and learning because people typically devote more time to studying items that they judge they have not learned well
* test yourself from time to time to avoid * practice testing is most useful/beneficial
Latent learning
hidden learning
learning happens without knowing it
Generalization
sometimes the relationship is broader than planned
Delayed conditioning
CS before US
Law of effect
we repeat behaviors that produce good outcomes and avoid behaviors that produce bad outcomes
Reinforcement vs punishment
good outcomes vs bad outcomes
Positive
adding something
Negative
taking something away
Observational learning
implicit learning
learning without awareness
Slow response vs fast response
slow goes to cortex, processes what is going on
fast bypasses thalamus and goes to amygdala, which is instinctual, not thinking about actions
stimulus is in the thalamus
Controlling emotional expressions
intensification - exaggerating
deintensification - muting
masking - replacing with another
neutralizing - displaying no emotion
Instinct
natural tendency to seek a goal
Masters and Johnson 4 stage model
excitement: blood flow
plateau: lasts longer in women, holds excitement
orgasm: climax
resolution: only men
Avoiding death
mortality salience hypothesis
when confronted with our mortality, we seek to reinforce our beliefs/punish non-believers
Continuous reinforcement
fastest way to learn something, along with fixed
Modeling
model a behavior for someone to follow/act like
