Exam 1 Flashcards
Psychology
study of mind and behavior
Mind
private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories, feelings
Behavior
observable actions of humans and animals
Plato
favored nativism: certain kinds of knowledge is innate
Aristotle
believed in philosophical empiricism: all knowledge is acquired through experience
child’s mind is a blank slate, experiences are written
Rene Descartes
believed mind and body are different
the body is material substance and mind is an immaterial or spiritual substance
Dualism
how mental activity is connected with behavior
Thomas Hobbes
the mind is what the brain does
Psychology benefitted from
physiology (study of biological processes)
Stimulus
sensory input from environment
Reaction time
amount of time taken to respond to stimuli
Consciousness
a person’s experience of the world and mind
sight, sound, taste, smell, bodily sensations, thoughts, feelings
Structuralism
analysis of the basic elemental sensations and feelings
examined the structure of mental processes
Introspection
observation of one’s own experience
Functionalism
how mental processes enable people to adapt to their environments
understand the functions mental processes served
Natural selection
features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce
The ultimate function of all psychological processes
to help people survive and reproduce
Hysteria
temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions
result of emotionally upsetting experiences
Unconscious
part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness, but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions
Psychoanalytic theory
emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and actions/behavior
Freud
Psychoanalysis
bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders
Freud
Humanistic psychology
approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings
focuses on people’s highest aspirations
people have an inherit need to develop, grow, and attain their full potential
Behaviorism
advocated that psychologist restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior
Watson
proposed to study only behavior what people do, instead of experience
behavior is objective
Pavlov
stimulus creates response (action or physiological changed caused by a stimulus)
Skinner
conditioning chamber (Skinner box)
Reinforcement
consequences of a behavior determine whether it’ll be more or less likely to occur again
Skinner believed
people do things that they were rewarded for in the past, and the belief that they “chose” to do them is an illusion of free will
sparked an outcry
Wertheimer
focused on illusions (errors of perception, memory or judgement in which subjective experience differs from objective reality)
Gestalt psychology
we often perceive the whole, instead of the sum of the parts
Lewin
thought best way to predict a person’s behavior was to look at the person’s interpretation (construal) of the stimulus, instead of focusing on the stimulus
Cognitive psychology
study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
Behavioral neuroscience
links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
Cognitive neuroscience
understanding the links between cognitive processes and brain activity
Evolutionary psychology
explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection
some things are passed on to help organisms survive
psychological features can be favored and passed on
Social psychology
studies causes and consequences of sociality
Culture
values, traditions, and beliefs shared by groups of people
can be defined by age, gender, sexual orientation, religion, occupation, etc.
Cultural psychology
study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members
Dogmatists
best way to understand illness was to separate the body’s functions
Empiricists
best way to understand illness was to observe sick people
Empiricism
belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation
Scientific method
a procedure for finding facts by using empirical evidence
uses specific predictions
Theory
hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
Hypothesis
falsifiable prediction made by a theory
Empirical method
set of rules and techniques for observation
People have 3 qualities that make them difficult to study
complexity
variability
reactivity
2 methods to study people
methods of observation: what people do
methods of explanation: why people do it
Operational definition
description of a property in terms of some concrete, observable event
Validity
how well the event indicates the property
Instrument
anything that can detect the event to which an operational definition refers
Reliability
tendency for an instrument to produce the same measurement every time
Power
an instrument’s ability to detect
Demand characteristics
when people behave as they think someone wants/expects while being observed
Naturalistic observation
observing people in their natural environments
reduces demand characteristics
Demand characteristics can be reduced by
testing something people can’t control
make sure they don’t know what the researchers expect
Expectations can influence
observations!
reality!
Double blind observation
the purpose is hidden from the observer and the person being observed
Variables
properties with values that vary
Correlation and causation
variations are synchronized (correlation)
Positively vs Negatively correlated
positively = more is more (more sleep, more remembered) negatively = more is less (more sleep, less partying)
Natural correlations
correlations observed in the world around us
Third variable correlation
two variables are correlated due to a third variable
Experiment
discovers the relationship between variables
Manipulation
changing a variable to determine its effect
Independent variable
variable changed
Dependent variable
variable responding to change
measured
Control group
measured against
Experimental group
changed
Self selection
occurs when participant determines if they’ll be in the control or experimental group
Internal validity
allows experiment to establish casual relationships
Random assignment
participants are assigned to groups randomly
ALWAYS define variables as they are
defined in the real world
External validity
variables have been defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way
Population
collection of people
Sample
partial collection of people taken from a population
Case method
studying an individual
Random sampling
all participants have an equal change of being included in the sample
Random sample is
representative of a population
allows generalization
3 reasons why failure to randomly sample isn’t fatal
sometimes similarity of a sample and population doesn’t matter
Direct replication: an experiment uses same procedures as a previous one, but with a new sample
sometimes the similarity of the sample and population is a reasonable starting assumption
Rules of critical thinking
doubt your own conclusions
consider what you don’t see
People tend to see what
they want to see and will stop looking for further data
or vice versa
All research must follow
show respect for people
must be beneficent: maximize benefits and reduce risks
must be just: distribute benefits and risks equally
Informed consent
written agreement to participate in a study, informed of all risks
Other things research must follow
freedom from coercion protection from harm risk-benefit analysis deception debriefing - telling participant true nature and purpose of study confidentiality
Neurons
cells in nervous system
communicate with each other to perform info processing tasks
Cell body
processes
keeps cell alive
contains nucleus
Dendrites
receives info from other neurons, sends it to cell body
Axon
sends info to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Synapse
gap between dendrites and axons of neurons
Myelin sheath
covers axon, protects, increases activity/speeds it up
Glial cells
composes sheath, support cells
Neurons communicate with other neurons at
the synapse
Sensory neurons
receives info from world and sends to brain through spinal cord
missing dendrites
Motor neurons
carry signals from spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement
connected to muscles
Interneurons
connects sensory neurons, motor neurons, and other interneurons
most common
Conduction
info travels inside neuron, through an electrical signal from the dendrites to the cell body to the axon
Transmission
signal passes from one neuron to another over the synapse
Resting potential
difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane
pumps ions in and out to maintain equilibrium
Action potential
electrical signal conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to synapse
occurs only when electric shock reaches threshold
all or none
Refracting period
time following an action potential during which a new action potential CANNOT be initiated
Saltatory conduction
helps speed flow of info down the axon
Terminal buttons
structures that branch out from an axon
filled with tiny vesicles that contain neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites
contain receptors
Receptors
parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters and initiate/prevent a new signal
Sending neuron (presynaptic)
action potential travels down the length of the axon to terminal buttons, where it stimulates the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles into synapse
Synaptic transmission
electrochemical action
allows neurons to communicate with each other
thoughts, emotions, behavior
Lock and key system
specific neurotransmitters and receptor sites
Neurotransmitters leave the synapse through 3 processes:
reuptake
enzyme deactivation
autoreceptors
Autoreceptors
NT can bind to certain receptor sites
can detect how much of a NT has been released into a synapse
Enzyme deactivation
NT can be destroyed by enzymes in the synapse
Reuptake
NT can be reabsorbed by terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron’s axon
Acetylcholine
regulation of attention, learning, sleeping, dreaming, memory
voluntary motor control
Dopamine
regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal
Glutamate
major excitatory NT in brain
enhances transmission of info between neurons
GABA
primary inhibitory NT
stops firing of neurons
too much or too little causes seizures
Two NTs can influence mood and arousal
norepinephrine
serotonin
endorphins
Norepinephrine
heightened awareness of dangers in environment
Serotonin
regulation of sleep, wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behavior
Endorphins
act within the pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain
helps dull the experience of pain and elevate moods
Agonists
drugs that increase actions of a NT
binding activates NT
Antagonists
drugs that bock function of a NT
binding blocks NT
Amphetamine
drug stimulates release of norepinephrine and dopamine
increases heart rate
play critical role in mood control
Nervous system
network of neurons, conveys electrochemical info throughout the body
2 major divisions of nervous system
central nervous system
peripheral nervous system
Central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
receives sensory info from world, process this info, and sends commands to skeletal and muscle systems
Peripheral nervous system
connects CNS to body’s organs and muscles
Peripheral nervous system composed of
somatic - nerves that convey info between voluntary muscles and CNS (conscious control)
automatic - nerves that carry involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, organs, and glands (works on its own)
Automatic nervous system composed of two systems
sympathetic - nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging/threatening situations
parasympathetic - helps body return to normal resting site
Central nervous system
Spinal reflexes - simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contraction
3 parts of the brain
hindbrain
midbrain
forebrain
Hindbrain
coordinates info coming in and out of the spinal cord
respiration, alertness, motor skills
Medulla
extension of spinal cord into skull, coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration
Reticular formation
regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal
Cerebellum
large structure of hindbrain that controls fine motor skills
Pons
structure that relays info from cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Midbrain
two main structures: tectum and tegmentum
helps orient an organism in an environment and guide movement toward/away stimuli
Forebrain
subcortical structures: areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the center of the brain
includes thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and basal ganglia
Thalamus
relays and filters info from senses and transmits the info to cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus
regulates body temp, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
Amygdala
located at tip of each horn of hippocampus
plays central role in many emotional processes
formation of emotional memories
Hippocampus
critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of cerebral cortex
Basal ganglia
set of subcortical structures
directs intentional movements
Endocrine system
glands that produce/secrete into bloodstream chemical messages (hormones)
influences variety of basic functions: metabolism, growth, sexual development
Pituitary gland
master gland
releases hormones that direct functions of other glands
hypothalamus sends to pituitary gland
Cerebral cortex
the outermost layer of brain
highest level
Left and right hemisphere
each controls functions of opposite side of body (contralateral control)
Corpus callosum
connects large areas on each side of the brain
supports communication of info across hemispheres
Occipital lobe
processes visual info
Parietal lobe
carries out functions
process info about touch
contains somatosensory cortex, motor cortex
Temporal lobe
hearing and language
primary auditory cortex
Frontal lobe
movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement
Association areas (organization within specific lobes)
neurons that help provide sense and meaning to info register in the cortex
Mirror neurons
active when an animal performs a behavior, or when another animal observes that animal performing same behavior (simple behaviors)
Neuroplasticity
ability of brain to adapt and change
Development of central nervous system
forebrain and hindbrain develop first
Epigenetics
study of environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed
Studying the brain
EEG (electrical signals), CT scan, MRI, DTI (white matter)
