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Cognitive > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the dictionary definition proposal of concepts?

A

Basic concepts like shoe or tree are so common understanding what these items are is analogous to having a dictionary definition for them

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2
Q

What is the family resemblance proposal of concepts?

A

the notion that members of a category share a number of features, even though these features may not be shared by all members of the category

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3
Q

What is the prototype model for concepts?

A

The claim that mental categories are represented by means of a single “best example” or prototype identifying the center of the category

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4
Q

Describe how the prototype model various among individuals?

A

The prototype is an average of various category members that have been encountered

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5
Q

Describe how a mental category can have a graded membership

A

Some members of a category are “better” members and therefore more firmly in the category

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6
Q

What is the sentence verification task?

A

An experimental procedure in which participants are given simple sentences and must respond as quickly as possible whether the sentence is true or false. The response time indicates how well it concept fits the prototype

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7
Q

What is the production task?

A

An experimental procedure used in studying concepts, in which the person is asked to name as many examples as possible. Concepts mentioned first fit the prototype the best

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8
Q

What is a “basic-level category”?

A

A level of categorization hypothesized as the “natural” and most informative level, neither too specific nor too general. Based on expertise. People tend to use these basic-level terms in their ordinary conversation and in their reasoning

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9
Q

Define the exemplar model

A

Contrast to the prototype model. Prototype is that average or “ideal” of a category, whereas an exemplar is a specific example. While a prototype is an abstract average of the members of a category, an exemplar is an actual member of a category, pulled from memory

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10
Q

What is the issue with rating things as “typical”?

A

judgements of typicality do not always align with judgements of category memberships. For example, some even numbers are rated as more “typical” even numbers than others.
It seems that category membership is therefore based on an item possessing some “essential”, deep features of that category

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11
Q

How does the anterior temporal lobe function in conceptual representation?

A

semantically unique items (Proper name such as landmark or song names) are retrieved using the anterior left temporal lobe

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12
Q

How do more posterior temporal lobe regions function in conceptual representation?

A

non-unique categories of items are retrieved using more posterior temporal lobe regions

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13
Q

Describe the living-nonliving distinction. What category is worth noting when discussing this distinction?

A

People’s descriptions tend to be about either living or non-livings things. Musical instruments do not always follow the living/non-living distinction, and are therefore often omitted from studies of object naming

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14
Q

Describe the involvement of motor and sensory regions in category knowledge

A

Retrieval of knowledge for concepts can also recruit motor and sensory regions of the brain as abstract conceptual knowledge is intertwined with knowledge about what particular objects sound like and do

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15
Q

Describe the knowledge network

A

Knowledge is represented via a vast network of connections and associations between all the information you know. Evidence for the knowledge network comes from the sentence verification task

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16
Q

Describe the hierarchical organization of language

A

smallest to largest: phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, sentences

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17
Q

What are phonemes?

A

the smallest unit of speech, specific sounds

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18
Q

What are morphemes?

A

Smallest meaningful unit of language, can indicate tense or plurality (Ex: “The umpire s talk ed to the play er s”

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19
Q

What are words?

A

The smallest freeform unit of language

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20
Q

What are phrases?

A

subunits of sentences

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21
Q

What are sentences?

A

sequences of words

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22
Q

Where does voicing occur?

A

vocal folds in the larynx. A sound is considered to be voiced if the vocal folds are fibrated while the sound is produced

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23
Q

Describe the place of articulation

A

where in the mouth airflow is restricted by varying position of tongue, lips, teeth, etc to produce sounds

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24
Q

Describe the manner of production of speech

A

whether air is fully stopped or merely restricted

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25
Q

What is voice onset time?

A

length of time that passes between the start of a speech sound and the onset of voicing.

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26
Q

Describe how the manipulation of voice onset time changes the perception of sounds

A

Researchers can manipulate VOT along a continuum, which you would expect to result in a smooth inverse relationship between the perception of different words. In reality, participants identify the sounds the same until the voice onset time passes a certain boundary. (Ex: ba vs pa, >25ms = pa <25ms = ba)

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27
Q

Describe how effective humans are at segmenting speech

A

in natural speech there are no clear boundaries between words but we are still able to segment speech almost effortlessly

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28
Q

Describe coarticulation

A

the blending of phonemes at word boundaries. The word is pronounced differently depending on what comes after

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29
Q

Describe categorical perception in speech

A

we are much better at hearing the difference between the categories of sounds than within categories of sounds

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30
Q

Describe the phonemic restoration effect

A

Using prior knowledge to fill in the missing phonemes in a sentence. Illustrates that the perception of language is constructed

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31
Q

Define phonology

A

the sequence of phonemes that make up the word

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32
Q

Define Orthography

A

How the word is spelled

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33
Q

Define Syntax

A

how to combine the word with other words

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34
Q

Define semantics

A

what the word means

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35
Q

Define Referent

A

The actual object, action, or event in the world to which a word refer

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36
Q

Define generativity

A

how new words are being formed all the time

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37
Q

What are the phrase structure rules of syntax?

A

the elements that must appear in a phrase, and the sequence of those elements (determiner, adjective, noun, verb, etc)

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38
Q

Differentiate between the prescriptive vs descriptive rules

A

Prescriptive rules are the way the language is supposed to be. Descriptive rules describe the way people actually talk

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39
Q

Define sentence parsing

A

figuring out each words syntactic role. We normally do this as we read/hear the sentence, which can lead us to make mistakes in garden path sentences

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40
Q

What are garden path sentences?

A

sentences that suggest an initial interpretation that turns out to be wrong

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41
Q

What is extralinguistic context in terms of syntax?

A

The context of the sentence determines how we parse it

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42
Q

What is prosody?

A

The pattern of pauses and pitch changes used to emphasize the sentence’s structure and meaning

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43
Q

What does a syntactic violation result in? Semantic?

A

syntactic violations in language result in an early left anterior negative (ELAN) electrical charge. Semantic violations in language result in a longer negative electrical charge (N400)

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44
Q

What is global aphasia?

A

No fluency, no comprehension, no repetition (complete aphasia)

Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, connection of the arcuate fasiculus

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45
Q

What is mixed transcortical aphasia?

A

No fluency, no comprehension, repetition (Global aphasia but with preserved repetition)

Broca’s, Wernicke’s, arcuate fasiculus spared but unconnected to other language regions

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46
Q

What is broca’s aphasia?

A

No fluency, comprehension, no repetition (Can only comprehend, broken speech, motor problem)

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47
Q

What is transcortical motor aphasia?

A

No fluency, comprehension, repetition (Like Broca’s but can repeat)

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48
Q

What is wernicke’s aphasia?

A

fluency, no comprehension, no repetition (Is fluent but with no comprehension or repetition, effortless word salad)

49
Q

What is transcortical sensory aphasia?

A

fluency, no comprehension, repetition (Like Wernicke’s but with repetition)

50
Q

What is conduction aphasia?

A

fluency, comprehension, no repetition (trouble with repetition)

damage to arcuate fasiculus

51
Q

What is anomic aphasia?

A

fluency, comprehension, repetition (milder form, individuals have trouble with retrieval)

52
Q

What was the result of probe-tone studies?

A

Non musicians will rate certain replaced tones in a musical piece as fitting better or worse

53
Q

What do expectancy violations of musical chords result in?

A

unexpected chords evoke an ERAN (early RIGHT anterior negativity) - syntactic musical violations

54
Q

Define amusia

A

tone deafness, a deficit in music perception

55
Q

Define Musical anhedonia

A

lack of emotional responses to music

56
Q

Give an example of a musical illusion

A

hearing a low tone in one ear and a high tone in another ear, when in reality it is the same tone; hearing a spoken sentence as if it was musical

57
Q

Describe normative vs descriptive decision-making theories

A

Normative theories describe how people SHOULD behave, focuses on rational behavior.
Descriptive theories describe how people actually do behave

58
Q

Describe the frequency estimates decision-making heuristic

A

an assessment of how often various events have occurred in the past, useful for making judgments

59
Q

Describe the availability decision-making heuristic

A

making your decision based on what comes to mind easiest (Ex: more words that start with the letter R or have the letter R in the third position)

60
Q

Describe representative decision-making heuristic

A

placing someone or something in a category if it is similar to your prototype for that category (Ex: assuming a scientist is weird or doesn’t like fashion)

61
Q

Describe the anchoring decision-making heuristic

A

tendency to rely on the first piece of information encountered

62
Q

Define covariation. What is an illusory covariation?

A

whether two behaviors/happenings tend to occur at the same time. We are bad at judging this

An illusory covariation is an incorrect belief that two happenings occur together (astrology)

63
Q

What is base-rate information> What is our bias towards this information?

A

ow frequently something occurs in general. We tend to neglect this information

64
Q

What is diagnostic information?

A

Does an individual case belong to a category

65
Q

What are the dual-process theories of decision making? Describe them

A

Type 1 model refers to thinking that is fast and automatic and that uses heuristics. Type 2 model refers to thinking that is slower, effortful, and more likely to be correct. Type 1 is not sloppy, it is often accurate and more efficient. Type 2 thinking can be influenced by training

66
Q

What is belief perseverance?

A

the tendency to continue endorsing a belief even when evidence has completely undermined it

67
Q

What are categorical syllogisms?

A

a type of logical argument that begins with two premises and then is completed with a conclusion that may or may not follow (All M are B, All D are M. Therefore, all D are B)

Can be valid or invalid

68
Q

What is belief bias?

A

if the conclusion is something people already believe to be true, they are more likely to judge the conclusion as following from the premises. People may ignore the premises of the logical argument and instead rely on their broader pattern of beliefs about what is true and what is not

69
Q

What are conditional statements?

A

If this is true, then that is true (or vice versa). We are bad at reasoning about these unless put into terms we can understand

70
Q

What is the four-card task?

A

Test of conditional statements. “If a card has a vowel on one side, then it must have an even number on the other side”. Which cards must be turned over to test this rule?

71
Q

What is utility maximization?

A

choosing the option with the greatest expected value (Ex: how many lives are saved)

72
Q

What is prospect theory?

A

decisions are a calculation of prospect of costs and benefits and humans weigh prospect of loss greater than prospect of gain (this is called loss aversion)

73
Q

What are the framing effects of utility maximization?

A

we tend to avoid risk when we could gain something, but we tend to be risk-taking when we could potentially lose something (we are averse to loss and would rather take a risk than have a certain loss). Also, could frame things in terms of gains or losses (Ex: 200/600 will be saved vs 400/600 will die), which would affect decisions.

74
Q

Risk seeking vs risk aversion in framing

A

If the frame casts a choice in terms of losses, we tend to be risk-seeking because we want to avoid the losses. If the frame casts a choice in terms of gains, we tend to be risk-averse because we want to preserve the gains.

75
Q

Somatic marker hypothesis

A

stresses the importance of emotion in decision-making. Conscious knowledge alone is not sufficient for making advantageous decisions. “Somatic markers” are feelings in the body that strongly influence decisions.

76
Q

What is affective forecasting? What is the bias involved in this?

A

People will estimate their future feelings, which plays a role in decision making. People however tend to overestimate their future feelings, especially for negative situations

77
Q

What occurs after damage to the Ventromedial Prefrontal cortex?

A

patients with this do not show emotional responses when making decisions, and have imparied decision making. These patients do not have these somatic markers (feelings in the body that strongly influence decisions.)

78
Q

How does problem solving work as a maze?

A

There is an initial state and a goal state, and overall path constraints. The entire problem is confined to a problem space, and you have a set of operators with which to solve the problem

79
Q

What is the initial state of problem solving?

A

the knowledge and resources you have at the outset

80
Q

What is the goal state of problem solving?

A

That state that you are working towards

81
Q

What are the operators of problem solving?

A

The available tools or actions

82
Q

What are the path constraints of problem solving?

A

The limits that rule out some operations

83
Q

What is the problem space of problem solving?

A

The set of all states that can be reached in solving a problem, too vast to explore

84
Q

What is the hill climbing strategy heuristic?

A

at each decision-point, you choose the option that goes in the direction of your goal

ex: dog that won’t head away from its goal to get to the gate entrance

85
Q

What is the mental imagery heuristic?

A

another problem solving heuristic, visualizing the problem sometimes allows for easier solutions

ex: bookworm chewing through volumes

86
Q

What is the analogy heuristic?

A

giving an analogy can help solve a problem, but only if the analogy is understood to be an analogy

ex: tumor radiation vs evil dictator

87
Q

What is the subgoal heuristic?

A

Splitting a problem into a series of smaller problems to aid in the solving of the overall problem

ex: three ring problem

88
Q

Differentiate between well-defined and ill-defined problems

A

in a well-defined problem, the goal state as well as the available operators are clearly defined. In an ill-defined problem it is useful to break down into subgoals

89
Q

Describe functional fixedness

A

having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects (Ex: two-string and candle problem, where pliers must be used as a weight)

90
Q

What is a mental set?

A

mental set is a framework for thinking about a problem

91
Q

Describe the water jar problem. What does this illustrate?

A

In the water jar problem (where you have to measure a specific amount of water), the mental set can become fixated and the simpler answer can be ignored as people try and solve the problem the way they did earlier

92
Q

What is restructuring?

A

thinking about the problem in a new way in order to find a solution

ex: connecting a set of nine dots arranged in a square with four straight lines requires leaving the confines of the square

93
Q

What are the four stages of creativity?

A

Preparation, incubation, illumination, verification

94
Q

What is the preparation stage of creativity?

A

Information gathering

95
Q

What is the incubation stage of creativity?

A

Taking a conscious break

96
Q

What is the illumination stage of creativity?

A

Insight emerges

97
Q

What is the verification stage of creativity?

A

Working out the details to solve the problem

98
Q

What are the arguments for or against incubation?

A

Arguments for: Problem solving may be promoted if thoughts are allowed to wander. Early efforts may have lead to fatigue which would dissipate.

Arguments against: studies have been unreliable

99
Q

What is divergent thinking?

A

The ability to find new connections among ideas

100
Q

What does the alternative uses test measure?

A

Divergent thinking across four dimensions (Fluency, originality, flexibility, and elaboration)

101
Q

Describe the four dimensions of divergent thinking (Fluency, originality, flexibility, or elaboration)

A

Fluency – how many uses you can come up with

Originality – how uncommon those uses are (e.g. “router restarter” is more uncommon than “holding papers together”)

Flexibility – how many areas your answers cover (e.g. cufflinks and earrings are both accessories, aka one area)

Elaboration – level of detail in responses; “keeping headphones from getting tangled up” would be worth more than “bookmark”

102
Q

What are the issues with intelligence testing?

A

test scores improve with instruction, there are narrow domains of expertise, tests are culturally biased

103
Q

What are the sub scores of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

A

Verbal comprehension, Perceptual reasoning, Working memory, and processing speed combine for an index of intelligence

104
Q

What is an example of verbal comprehension?

A

Similarities subtest- describe how are two items similar

105
Q

What is an example of perceptual reasoning?

A

Block design test- recreate an image using colored blocks

106
Q

What is an example of working memory?

A

Digit span both backwards and forwards

107
Q

What is an example of processing speed?

A

symbol search task- checking whether symbols on the right side are present on the left side

108
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

An evaluation of how consistent the measure is, reliability within the same person who has taken the test. Very high for intelligence tests but not perfect

109
Q

What is predictive validity?

A

How well the test predicts someone will perform in the setting that requires it

110
Q

Differentiate between generalized and specialized intelligence

A

generalized intelligence would mean that there is one measure of intelligence. Specialized intelligence would mean that each measure of intelligence is separate.

111
Q

What is indicated by spearman’s “g”?

A

A factor for general intelligence that is generally accepted

112
Q

Differentiate between fluid and crystallized intelligence

A

Fluid intelligence is the ability to deal with new and unusual problems. Crystallized intelligence is acquired knowledge, including your verbal knowledge and your experience

113
Q

Define the concept of dog using the prototype and exemplar model

A

Prototype: Medium size furry mammal with four legs and a tail.
Exemplar: golden retriever

114
Q

How did patient EVR perform on the Iowa Gambling Task

A

Drew more frequently from bad decks (EVR had prefrontal cortex damage)

115
Q

How did EVR perform on moral decision making?

A

Always endorsed the utilitarian choice (prefrontal cortex damage)

116
Q

How is fluency defined in terms of aphasia?

A

ease of producing connected speech vs halting effortful speech

117
Q

Where was EVR’s brain damage?

A

ventromedial prefrontal cortex, emotional decision making or emotional thrust

118
Q

Location of Broca’s and Wernicke’s area

A

Broca’s - left inferior frontal gyrus, lower part of left frontal lobe, near motor cortex

Wernicke’s - left posterior superior temporal gyrus, closeish to somatosensory cortex and parietal lobe

Cognitive (3 decks)

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