Exam 2 Flashcards
Differentiate between top-down and bottom-up processing
Top down is expectation driven while bottom up is stimulus driven
What is selective attention?
The ability to focus on one task while ignoring other stimuli
What was the dichotic listening task? What were the results?
A way to measure selective attention. Have an “attended” listening task in one ear and a “unattended” listening task in another ear. Only some things can be registered in the “unattended” ear, such as speaker gender and loudness.
What was the cocktail party effect?
describes when you notice your name, or other important information, mentioned even if you are ignoring that channel
What was the gorilla suit experiment? What did it show?
A man in a gorilla suit walks through a group of people playing basketball. We filter that information out and do not notice the man in the gorilla suit
How is filtering experience dependent?
The information that is filtered out as a “distractor” depends on your individual experience/learning
How does filtering affect a task?
Desired stimuli are enhanced while distractors are filtered out
What is inattention blindness?
failure to perceive something you weren’t attending to
Describe the experiment involving fixation, targets, and masks. What was this an example of?
Had subjects fixate on a point while their attention was on a target in the corner of the screen. The screen was then masked and the trial was repeated. After several trials 90% of subjects failed to notice if the fixation point changed. Example of inattentional blindness
Describe the role of attention in perception.
Perception is not just having a stimulus present, it requires work (attention)
What is change blindness?
an inability to detect changes in scenes
What is selective priming?
exposure to a stimulus unconsciously influences a response to a subsequent stimulus
Differentiate between stimulus-driven and expectation-driven priming
Stimulus-driven is based on what stimuli you’ve recently encountered, button-up, low effort. Expectation-driven is top down and requires effort.
Describe the Posner experiment. What did it show?
tested the effects of priming. The independent variable was the type of prime (neutral (+), correct (G), or misled (H)). The dependent variable is the response time for participants to say whether a pair of letters (Ex: GG) were the same. Indicated that even just exposure to the prime benefitted response times. Repetition priming.
Describe how the results of the Posner experiment changed based on the validity of the prime
Depending on how valid the priming was (what percent of the time the prime predicted the target) it could show the interaction between stimulus driven priming (low validity) vs expectation driven priming (high validity).
What is repetition priming?
improvements in a behavioural response when stimuli are repeatedly presented. Words you’ve seen recently are better recognized than words you haven’t seen recently
What is the issue with doing multiple tasks with divided attention?
In performing multiple tasks simultaneously you can perform concurrent tasks only if you have the cognitive resources for both.
Describe Similarity Effects (divided attention). What experiment showed this?
When performing multiple tasks simultaneously similar tasks compete for resources. (Shown through a listening task wherein the distractors where either heard, seen, or illustrated through pictures; when the distractors were heard along with the attended listening task it causes the most errors in recognition)
Describe the concept of general resources.
even very dissimilar tasks can influence attention. This means that there must be some general resources that all activities require in addition to task-specific resources
Describe the concept of executive control.
a possible explanation for the general resource that all activities require. Executive control is required for setting goals, choosing strategies, and directing cognitive function.
What is the prefrontal cortex? What does it do?
The most frontal part of the frontal lobes. Important for rational thought and behavior.
What are perseverative errors and what are they caused by?
Caused by damage to the prefrontal cortex. The continuing recurrence of an error even after feedback. (Shown through a card game with changing rules, or through the incorrect copying of a figure despite rigid planning)
What is goal neglect and what is it caused by?
Caused by damage to the prefrontal cortex. The ignoring of some task requirement despite being able to understand it. (Shown through bad planning when copying a figure)
Describe the influence of practice on performance in terms of being able to divide attention.
Practice improves performance by breaking down complex tasks into parts. These tasks go from being controlled to being automatic, and requires fewer attentional resources.
Describe the Stroop task. What does this show?
Stroop task involves naming the color font of words. When the words are different colors from their font it is difficult to describe the font color. Reading is automatic and there is less executive control.
What is memory acquisition?
putting information into memory
What is memory storage?
holding it in memory
What is memory retrieval?
recalling (remembering) the information
Describe the modal model
Suggests that memory consists of three stages: Sensory, Short term, and Long term
What are the two types of Sensory memory?
echoic for hearing, iconic for vision
Define Short-term memory.
the place where you’re storing memory in short term
Define Long-term memory
where some of the information makes it, permanent storage
What are the issues with the modal model?
Sensory memory isn’t really talked about much anymore, and the term “short-term” memory has been replaced with “working memory”
What are the advantages with the modal model? (What are the distinctions between different types of memory)
Highlighted distinctions between working memory and LTM. Working memory has a limited capacity while long-term memory has a large capacity. Working memory has relatively easy entry and retrieval while long-term is relatively hard. Working memory is temporary while long-term memory is permanent
Describe the Free Recall Task. What does it distinguish?
Distinguishes between working memory and long term memory. Asked to recall words after reading a list. The words remembered from the beginning are in long term memory, the words remembered from the end are in working memory
Describe the Serial position effect.
items presented early or late in a list are remembered better than those in the middle
Describe the concept of memory rehearsal (for the free recall task)
An explanation of the primacy effect. Rehearsed the first few words which got them into long term memory
Describe the primacy effect
People are more likely to remember items at the beginning of the list
Describe the recency effect
People are more likely to remember items seen most recently. Doing another task that interferes with working memory (like counting backwards) will eliminate the recency effect
What is the digit span test? What does it test?
Measures a person’s working memory capacity. How many digits can you remember?
Describe the concept of chunking
organizes information into meaningful units and facilitates memory
What is the operation span test? What does it test? What does it show?
tests working memory when it is actually “working”. Decide whether an equation is true or false then remember a word. The number of words remembered is the operation span. Shows the dynamic nature of working memory
Describe the dynamic nature of working memory.
working memory is not one thing but a system
Define the Central Executive.
a component of working memory, produces executive control processes and is the main component of working memory
Describe the Visuospatial Buffer
a component of working memory, a “helper” but for visual information
Describe the Articulatory Rehearsal Loop. What are the two components?
a component of working memory, has two components (subvocalization (inner voice) and a phonological buffer (inner ear)
Define subvocalization.
Your inner voice helping you remember things by repeating them in your head with little effort
Define the phonological buffer.
Your inner ear helping you remember things by storing a representation of the thing you’re remembering, like an auditory “image”
Describe the Concurrent articulation task. What does it show?
Taking the operation span test (working memory) while articulating (“TAH-TAH-TAH…”) results in worse memory performance. Shows that speech production and subvocalization use the same system.
Define encoding.
the process of taking information and transforming it into a format that can be stored in memory
Differentiate between Maintenance versus Elaborative rehearsal.
Maintenance rehearsal is when you think about the material in a mechanical/habitual way such as reciting (shallow processing). Elaborative rehearsal is thinking about the information in meaningful ways by relating the information to things you already know (deep processing)
What is the appropriate view of learning? How does intention to memorize effect memory?
Consider learning as a way to establish a path to the information and make it easier to find. Intention to memorize has little effect, focus instead on understanding and making connections.
Which way of processing results in better memory?
Deeper processing results in better memory
Define Retrieval Paths
Paths the guide a person’s thoughts toward the content to be remembered (Ex: elaborate sentences result in richer retrieval paths)
Define Mnemonics
Improves memory through organization
What are first-letter mnemonics?
Remembering a list of things by their first letters (Every Good Boy Does Fine)
What is the peg-word system?
Items are “hung” on a system of already well known “pegs” (One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree)
What is the role of imagery in memory?
Mental imagery can be a good mnemonic tool. To facilitate memory mental images need to show the objects in some kind of interaction rather than just each individual object (deep processing)
Define Retrieval Cues?
any stimulus that helps you remember information stored in long-term memory. Free recall - recall the words, Cued recall - recall the words. The categories were birds, furniture, and professions.
What is necessary for cues to be effective?
Cues are effective only if congruent with the context in which the word was encoded (The man lifted vs tuned the piano; cue of something heavy only works with lifted)
Describe Encoding Specificity.
any stimulus is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory (serve as a cue) for that experience. Includes both context-dependent memory and state-dependent memory.
Define-Context dependent memory
Memories (information) are encoded along with their context (physical situation); recalling memories in the same context improves retrieval
Define State-dependent memory
Learning that is associated with an internal state, such as a mood or emotion. Recalling memories in the same state improves retrieval
What is context reinstatement?
Recreating the context present during learning improves memory performance (If studied underwater test better underwater)
Define nodes
a concept in a network of ideas (Ex: Piano)
Define associations (memory network)
the connection between other nodes/concepts (Ex: Piano and Violin)
Describe the concept of spreading activation.
A node can be “activated” if it receives a strong enough input signal. Spreading activation travels from one node to another in a network, via the associative links
Describe the concepts of Sub-threshold Activation and Summations in the memory network
Sub-threshold activation will not trigger a response, but it can accumulate rising to activation levels. Summations are when insufficient activation received from one source can add to insufficient activation received from another source
What are lexical decision tasks? What do the results illustrate?
Participants are asked “Are both of these words”. Respond faster on trials where both words are semantically related (cat vs dog). This illustrates semantic priming.
What is semantic priming?
A response to a target is faster when preceded a semantically related prime
What is recall in memory testing?
Test of memory wherein you generate the item with or without cue. (Ex: What was the name of the restaurant we went to?”) Requires search through memory
Describe Source Memory in relation to recognition
When you know the source of your current knowledge. When source memory is available recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall (Also requires search through memory)
Describe Familiarity in relation to recognition
Influences recognition responses. This feels familiar so I must have seen it recently.
Describe Capgras syndrome.
When you have source memory without familiarity
What is implicit memory?
unconscious, revealed by indirect tests
What is procedural memory?
Type of implicit memory. Knowing how to do things (memory for skills) (Ex: Muscle memory, mirror tracing task)
What is perceptual learning?
Type of implicit memory. Recalibration of perceptual systems as a result of experience (Ex: Vernier acuity)
What is the Vernier acuity test? What does this show?
Measures the ability to discern a misalignment among two line segments, can improve with practice. Shows perceptual learning
Describe how the concept of working memory differs from short term memory
not a place but a status, ideas being currently “worked on” are in “working memory”
Describe the illusion of truth (Implicit memory).
an effect of implicit memory in which claims that are familiar end up seeming more plausible. The more you see or hear something repeatedly the more likely you are to believe it is true.
Describe Source confusion.
Believing you recognized something because you are familiar with it, not because you actually recalled the information
Describe processing fluency. What does it explain?
an explanation of source confusion. Familiarity to a source results in strengthened pathways, making processing easier (or more fluent)
What is classical conditioning?
A type of implicit memory, learning about associations among stimuli
Define Explicit memory. What are the two types?
Also called declarative memory. Requires conscious effort. Episodic vs Semantic memory
Define episodic vs semantic memory.
Episodic - Memory for specific events (mental time travel) Semantic - General knowledge, not tied to a time or place
Differentiate between retrograde and Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde is the inability to recall past memories while anterograde is the inability to create new memories
What type of amnesia did patient HM have?
Had anterograde amnesia do to the removal of his hippocampus
What is Korsakoff’s syndrome?
Another cause of anterograde amnesia - thiamine deficiency due to alcoholism
What type of amnesia did patient SM have?
had difficulty forming implicit memories (fear conditioning) due to amygdala damage
What is fear conditioning?
A type of classical conditioning where the stimulus creates fear
What type of amnesia did patient WC have?
developed implicit memories (fear conditioning) but could not develop explicit memories due to damage in hippocampus
Describe Double Dissociation
The distinction between implicit and explicit memory
Differentiate between the roles of the hippocampus and amygdala
Hippocampus is for explicit memories, Amygdala is for implicit memories
Describe the DRM Paradigm. What does this show?
Participants mis-remember related words as being present on a memorized list. Shows schematic memory
What is schematic memory?
“Memory” based on schema rather than actually remembered facts
What is misattribution?
Assigning a memory to the wrong source
What is source misattribution?
Incorrectly remembering the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory
What is source amnesia?
Remembering an event but not remembering where the information was encountered
What is crypto-amnesia?
People think they came up with a new idea, but just retrieved a previous memory
What is persistence?
Unwanted Remembering
What is memory bias?
Changing of memories over time so they become consistent with current beliefs
What is suggestibility bias?
memory is altered due to misleading information Ex: Car accident prompts
What is the relationship between memory confidence and accuracy?
No relationship between memory confidence and accuracy
Describe absentmindedness in terms of memory
Failure of acquisition as a result of shallow encoding, often the result of failing to pay attention
Define retention interval
How much time has passed between acquisition and retrieval
Describe the decay theory of forgetting
Memory simply fades over time
Describe the interference theory of forgetting
he passage of time is correlated with forgetting, but forgetting is caused by interference - when other information disrupts memories
Describe the retrieval failure theory of forgetting
Suggests that you haven’t forgotten the information, you just can’t remember it. (Ex: Tip of the tongue phenomenon is partial retrieval failure, can remember starting letter and approximate sound)
Differentiate between proactive interference and retroactive interference
Proactive interference - Prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information Retroactive - New information inhibits the ability to remember old information
Describe brain plasticity
the ability of the brain to change through development, experience, or injury. Memory is the result of brain plasticity
What is autobiographical memory?
Memory about life events, combination of semantic and episodic memories
Differentiate between episodic and semantic details
Episodic details pertain to the central memory. Semantic details are of other events, repetitions, or factual data.
Describe the reminiscence bump
Enhanced memory for events from adolescence to early adulthood (15-30). May be due to the development of a self-image, this being a period of change, or because of this being a significant time in the cultural life script.
How do experiments test for vividness?
Ratio of episodic to semantic details
Describe how the DRM paradigm affects individuals with perfect autobiographical memory
Individuals with a near-perfect memory for autobiographical events perform similarly to other participants on the DRM task (also report remembering related words). This is because their superior memory only applies to autobiographical memories, not semantic ones. They do not perform better on episodic tests
Describe the Self-Reference Effect.
Better memory for information relevant to yourself
Define Self-Concept
Everything you know and believe about yourself
Define Self-Schema
A knowledge structure about our self that helps us perceive, organize, and interpret self-relevant information, including personality
What are Flashbulb memories?
Vivid memories for highly emotional events that may contain large-scale errors
What is LTP (Long Term Potentiation)
The mechanism by which memories are consolidated. The synaptic connections between neurons are strengthened after two neurons fire together which allows for easier activation.
Describe the concept of Hebbian Learning
Neurons that fire together wire together (experience changes the brain)
What was the taxi study?
London cab drivers have enlarged hippocampus
