Exam 3 Flashcards
Components of a problem
initial state, subgoals, operators, and goal state
Problem space
mental model of the issue
Frames of mind
Directed Thinking - rational, goal oriented thought
Undirected Thinking - unconstrained, creative thought
Well-defined problems
problems with clear initial and goal states, operators, and subgoals
Ill-defined problems
problems with unclear initial and goal states, operators and subgoals
Knowledge Rich problems
problems that can only be solved with sub partial prior knowledge. Ex. performing open heart surgery
Knowledge Lean problems
problems that can be solved without much prior knowledge. Ex. walking a dog
Algorithms and problems with it
shortcuts that help remember material
Problems: time consuming
Heuristics
working backward, hill climbing and analogical problem solving
Analogical Problem Solving
using similarities between current and old problems to help generate a solution
Types of analogical problems
Surface similarity - relationship between appearance of parts
Structural similarity - relationship between parts is similar
Procedural similarity - different actions between parts is similar
Mental set
tendency to use a strategy that has been helpful in the past, regardless of whether it’s appropriate now
Insight
sudden realization of how to solve a problem
Incubation - how could this help problem solving?
process of putting problems aside for a period of time; could help problem solving by putting away unimportant info, unfocused attention allows for new perspectives
Expertise
extremely high level of thinking and performance in a specific domain; 10,000 hour rule
Metacognition
monitoring of cognitive processes and states of knowledge
Creativity
process of producing something both original and worthwhile
Creativity tests
Divergent task - Guilford’s Alternative Uses Task - generate alternative uses for a common item. Ex. different ways to use a hair dryer
Convergent task - Remote Associates Task - identify a fourth word that ties the other three together. Ex. shoulder, sweat, sore… cold
Language
system of symbols that are used to communicate ideas and information
Language criteria
- Communicative - exchange of thoughts and feelings
- Arbitrary symbolism - connection between the symbol and the “thing”
- Regular structure - only certain arrangements have meaning. Ex. ARE and REA
- Structured at multiple levels - can be analyzed at more than one level. Ex. DOG ate CAT vs ate DOG CAT
- Generative - language users can produce novel utterances
- Displacement - language users can communicate about things that are not in the here and now. Ex. talk about dreams, past, and present
- Dynamic - expand and accommodate new stuff. Ex. jeggings, hater, unfriend
Units of language
Phoneme - smallest unit of sound
Morpheme - smallest unit of meaning
Lexicon - mental collection of all meaning units: 80,000
Syntax - grammatical rules that specify how morphemes are arranged to form sentences
Semantic Structure - meaning of utterances
Pragmatics - communication of intention based on context
Vocabulary growth
18 months (3-100 words), 2 years (300 words), 3 years (1000 words), 10 years (~ to adults)
Fundamental aspects of language
Production - ability to produce linguistic output
Comprehension - ability to understand linguistic input
Broca’s Area and Aphasia
Area - production center of the brain
Aphasia - comprehension is intacked, production is difficult
Wernicke’s Area and Aphasia
Area - comprehension center of the brain
Aphasia - production is intacked, comprehension is difficult
Non-linguistic communication components
Gesture - movements that are coordinated in the time and meaning with the context of language
Discourse markers - indirectly relevant words/phrases a speaker uses. Ex. like, um
Prosodic cues - rhythm, stress, and intonation that provide additional information about what a speaker is saying
Is ASL a true language?
Yes, It meets all 7 criteria, aphasias affect ASL, it has evolved and developed like a spoken language
Evolution of a language
jargon (random jumbled words), homesign (family language), pidgin (language by at least two groups), creole (mixture of different languages), language system
Animal communication
feelings and emotional states, warnings, mating desires, food sources
Confirmation bias
tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s existing beliefs (major problem with primate studies)
Emotion
a person’s affective state of feeling
Mood
extended emotional state
Categorical approach (models of emotion)
emotions are distinct - Ekman’s Basic Emotion Theory: innate - everyone is born with 6 emotions
Dimensional approach (models of emotion)
emotions result from a combination of factors - Barrett & Russell’s dimensional model (high/low arousal & negative/positive valence)
Appraisal
evaluations we make about situations relevant to our goals, concerns, and wellbeing - this determines whether we experience emotion, and which emotion we experience
Automatic Appraisal
non-conscious, memory-based (gut feeling)
Deliberate Appraisal
effortful, related to decision making
Types of emotion regulation
Situation Stimulus - approach desirable situations and avoid non-desirable situations
Situation Modification - change the situation to alter emotional state
Attention Deployment - deliberate distraction
Cognitive Change - using reappraisal to change the meaning of the situation
Response Modulation - continuing emotion of the situation
Attentional Narrowing
increased arousal leads to decreased conscious awareness of environmental stimuli
Forebrain
cognitive processing
Midbrain
consciousess
Hindbrain
human functions
Top-Down Processing
the context surrounding the stimulus will cue you into the meaning. Ex. 12 B 14 and A B C
Bottom-Up Processing
trying to gain meaning with something that has no meaning. Ex. black and white sploches and the distinct cow
4 Bottom-Up Theories
Template - take new stimulus and attempt to match it with a stored template. Ex. chair and existing matches
Prototype - creating mental representations and every new stimulus gets ranked and falls into a category. Ex. tomato, fruit or vegetable?
Feature Matching - break stimulus down into components, identify features, put back together. Ex. T | - T “T”
Recognition by Components - geons make up objects
Movement filter theory
movement affects the ease of search - sometimes it helps and sometimes it inhibits
Attention in feature integration theory
conscious attention works as a “glue” to integrate representations of features so that the target can be detected
Baddeley’s Working Model - why is it better than the classic view?
this is a model in which different components of short-term memory can help place information into long-term memory. This model uses both visual and auditory working memory to store info instead of using basic short-term memory.
Encoding specificity principle
memory is best when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval
State-Dependent memory
improved retrieval what the state or mind at encoding is the same at retrieval
Context-Dependent memory
improved retrieval when the environment at encoding is the same at retrieval
5 explanations for forgetting
- effortful forgetting
- encoding failures
- inadequate retrieval cues
- decay
- interference
Intrusion Error
information that is related to a theme of memory, but is not part of the original memory, and becomes associated with the event
Savings in relearning
previously presented and forgotten material is relearned faster than novel material
Forcing functions
limitation that prevents an action without considering key information. Ex. putting a sticky note reminder on your steering wheel
Judgment
assessment of likelihood, quantity or frequency (estimating costs)
Decision Making
making a selection from various options (investments and commitments)
Base rates
relative frequency with which an event occurs in the population
Heuristics and one bias in judgment
Representativeness Heuristic - deciding an object belongs to a category because it appears to be representative to that category
Availability Heuristic/Bias - estimated frequency of a given event is dependent on how easily related information can be assessed
Recognition Heuristic - the option that is most easily recognized gets selected
One fallacy in judgment
Conjunction Fallacy - incorrect assumption that the probability of two events occurring together greater than one of the events occurring alone. Ex. bank teller/feminist activity
Heuristics in decision making
Satsficing Heuristic - selecting the first option that satisfies the minimum requirements
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic - decision is influenced by an implied starting point and subsequent adjustments
Bias in decision making
Hindsight bias - tendency to remember initial conditions as more suggestive of one option that the other. Ex. financial aid vs reputation
Fallacy in decision making
Sunk Cost Fallacy - tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment has been made. Ex. staying in a 5-year relationship because you’re already in too deep
Multiattribute Utility Theory
we may account for all attributes of all possible options and determine the best choice. Ex. excel sheet with every specific pro and con
Bounded Rationality Principle
decision making is only partially relational due to limited information and processing resources
Framing
reaction to a particular choice differs depending on how the options are presented. Ex. advertising and how they present what they want to sell
Loss aversion
sensitivity to potential losses rather than potential gains during decision making
