Exam 2 Flashcards
Memory
retaining on past experiences to use that info in the present
Three memory processes
Encoding: transformation of information into mental representation (making meaning)
Storage: maintain encoded information in memory
Retrieval: calling back the stored information in response to a cue for use in an activity (stimulus or hook - test question)
Recognition
selecting remembered material from a set of presented options (multiple choice)
Recall
generating remembered material (short answer)
Types of Recall
Free: in any order, no cues
Cued: in relation to a clue or piece of information
Serial: in the order the items were presented
Multistore Model of Memory - 3 types
Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
Capacity
the amount of info that can be held in memory
Duration
amount of time info can be held in memory
Sensory memory (Sperling’s Partial Report)
initial repository for sensory information
Capacity: large
Duration: 250-500 milliseconds after exposure
Short-term memory
Capacity: 7 +/- 2 pieces of information can be held
Duration: about 30 seconds without rehearsal
Long-term memory
Capacity: infinite
Duration: infinite
Chunking
organizing information into meaningful pieces
Iconic memory
visual memory store, less than 1 second
Echonic memory
auditory store, 3-4 seconds (pitch pipe in a choir)
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
Working memory components narrowing down to long-term memory
Central Executive, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop, all leading to long term memory
Components of Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
Central Executive: “CEO” makes decisions on whether to pull/integrate visuospatial and phonological info to episodic buffer
Visuospatial Sketchpad: responsible for visual representation (map to Naz/Wegmans)
Episodic Buffer: a place to integrate visuospatial and phonological information
Phonological Loop: memory that is dedicated to auditory information (talking to yourself) - subvocal rehearsal (words from map to Naz/Wegmans)
Serial Position Curve
the order in which items are presented affects the ability to recall them correctly
Primacy Effect
items presented early in the list are more likely to be recalled (long-term memory)
Recency Effect
items presented late in the list are more likely to be recalled (short-term memory)
Encoding
transforming info into a representation that can be stored in memory
Forms of Encoding
Visual: based on a form or appearance - CAT, MOSS (capital)
Acoustic: based on sound - rat, bat, mat (rhyme)
Semantic: based on meaning - cow, horse, pig
Dual Coding Theory
information is best remembered when using acoustic and semantic codes
Declarative memory - “Explicit”
memory that involves conscious recollection of events and facts
Types of declarative memory
Episodic: memory for past events that occurred at a specific date and time - usually self relevant
Semantic: memory for concepts and facts, including general knowledge about the world - not self-relevant
Reconstructive Retrieval
schemas of episodic memories that alter encoded memory representations
Schemas
mental templates for knowledge that are built from experience
Levels of Processing model
memory varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of processing.
input –> structural, acoustic, semantic –> processing into long-term memory
Distinctiveness
paying attention to differences
Relational Processing
paying attention to similarities and relationships
3 factors that can influence consolidation
Sleep - maintaining a normal amount of sleep can help preserve long-term memories (deep sleep)
Time - Distributed practice can help maintain information longer (studying for a test)
Elaborative Encoding - connecting new information to existing information in memory
Elaborative vs Deep Encoding
Elaborative: adding new info to existing info
Deep: processing of meaning to a subject
Explicit (Declarative) Memory
memory that requires conscious recollection
Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory
memory that refers to skills and procedures
Episodic Memory (related to explicit memory)
memory for past events that occurred at a specific date and time “I remember..”
Semantic Memory (related to explicit memory)
memory for concepts and facts, including general knowledge about the world “I know..”
Priming (related to implicit memory)
exposure to one stimulus influences the response to other stimuli
Muscle Memory (related to implicit memory)
memory for the performance of different types of action
Nonassociative learning (related to implicit learning)
change in the strength of a response to a specific stimulus due to a repeated exposure (habituation, sensitization)
Associative learning (related to implicit memory)
learning an association between one stimulus and a behavior or other stimulus (classical & operant conditioning)
Classical conditioning
learned association between two stimuli
Operant conditioning
behavior is controlled by the presence of consequences
Reinforcement schedules
rate and pattern of reinforcement (or punishment) - continuous; fixed vs variable (predictability vs slot machine); ratio vs interval (# of times behavior is exhibited vs amount of time has elapsed since last reinforcement)
Encoding specificity
memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval
Context-Dependent Memory
improved retrieval when the environmental context at encoding matches the context at retrieval
State-Dependent Memory
improved retrieval when the mood or state of consciousness at encoding matches the context at retrieval
Savings in relearning
previously presented and forgotten material is relearned faster than novel material
Mnemonics
metamemory techniques to help you store information
Types of mnemonics
categorical clustering - food list
interactive imagery - little Albert (baby with crazy gray hair)
Method of Loci - pairing info with locations/real objects
Acronyms - PEMDAS
Acrostics - Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
Why do mnemonics work?
meaningful encoding, structural retrieval, & speed
Retrograde
loss of previously stored memories
*disruption of long-term memory
Anterograde
loss of ability to store new memories
*disruption of consolidation
Temporally Graded Amnesia
amount of loss changes in relation to the time of the injury
5 explanations for forgetting
- effortful forgetting
- encoding failures
- inadequate retrieval cues
- decay
- interference
Retrieval cues
stimuli that help you pull pieces of information from memory. Ex: heads up game
Decay theory
& describe two major problems
memory fades over time, especially if that specific memory isn’t accessed or rehearsed
Problems: old memories persist without rehearsal
Ex: planets, organelles
Interference theory
ability to retrieve target information is inhibited by other information
Two parts to interference theory
Retroactive - new info interferes with retrieving old info. Ex: trying to remember old address
Proactive - old info interferes with retrieving new info. Ex: park your car in same spot everyday -> park it somewhere else today and you go to old spot looking for it
Intrusion error
info that is related to a theme of a memory but is not part of the original memory and becomes associated with the memory
3 major types of memory biases
Hindsight bias - knowing something that you don’t truly know but actually ends up happening
Rosy Retrospection - remembering past events more positive than they were. Like college sucking right now but saying it was great in 5 years
Confirmation bias - gaining info that agrees with your opinion - comic strip example
Misinformation Effect
questions containing misleading information can distort memory. Ex: car accident and speed
Eyewitness Testimony
detailed recollection of events given by a witness in a court of law
Prospective Memory & Time/Event bases
remembering to carry out some intended action. Ex: get gas; write a paper
Time based: memory for an event that has to be carried out at a certain time
Event based: memory for an event that has to be carried out whenever you come in contact with it
Forcing functions
limitation that prevents an action without considering key information
cognitive phase (proceduralization)
individual skill practice, involving effortful and focused skill development
associative phase (proceduralization)
practicing individual of skills together in chunks
Ex. learning to simultaneously maintain a lane position in a car while checking over your shoulder before changing lanes
autonomous phase (proceduralization)
practice is devoted to combining chunks of skills together into one smooth process
