Exam 3

Question 1

_____ involves positively evaluating another person and manifesting behavior to approach them or strengthen a social relationship with them

Answer 1

Attraction (definition)

Question 2

1. Target factors- physical attractiveness, facial features, symmetry, etc.
2. Perceiver factors- comparison standards, misattribution of arousal, similarities.
3. Relationship factors- interpersonal dynamics, reciprocity of attraction, self-serving
4. Environmental factors- social network, cultural norms, scarcity, proximity

Answer 2

4 factors that helming predict attraction

Question 3

______ ________ – perceivers are attracted to target that are rewarding in some ways (those who can provide either immediate gratification or delayed gratification)

Answer 3

Reinforcement theories

Question 4

___ _____ ____ – perceivers prefer congruence among their thoughts, feelings, and interpersonal relationships.

•The idea here is that we tend to be attracted to whatever is easiest for us to process and maintain our own beliefs/behaviors

Answer 4

Cognitive consistency theories

Question 5

___ _____ ____ suggest that over time certain biological methods have evolved from social and environment factors that favor attraction as an adaptive advantage

Answer 5

evolutionary psychology theories

Question 6

___ ___ ____ idea here is that we are attracted to certain body types, face types, heights, similar demographic features, etc. of a person because for millions of years, these features in mates have been most successful in providing security and offspring

Answer 6

evolutionary psychology theories

Question 7

____ means being chosen by no one as a desirable partner.

Answer 7

rejection

Question 8

____ means getting active feedback that separates or weakens a relationship.

Answer 8

rejection

Question 9

___ is another area of rejection research that focuses on rejection from multiple individuals at once

Answer 9

Ostracism

Question 10

____ ____ aim to explain how the behaviors of people weaken or separate a social bond influences the social cognition and social interactions of the person being rejected.

Answer 10

rejection theories

Question 11

Some of the saddest examples of how lack of social interaction can affect human beings are the cases of ___ ____. These are extreme cases where very young children are either abandoned or lost by their parents, but somehow survive on their own in the forest, jungle, etc. While some have formed bondswith other organisms, their social contact with humans was almost completely absent

Answer 11

feral children.

Question 12

The devastating effects of ____ _____ are well documented in social psychology. Solitary confinement of prisoners may be necessary for safety reasons, but limiting physical contact and social interaction to 1 hour per day is highly stressful and emotionally damaging

Answer 12

social isolation

Question 13

1. Behavioral- school shootings, aggression
2. cognitive, motivational, and self-regulatory- intelligence, more interesting socializing
3. emotional response- pain response

Answer 13

3 types of consequences from rejection

Question 14

For example, embarrassment, hurt feelings, and loneliness are inherently social emotions that involve threats and challenges that arise in interpersonal interactions and relationships. We focus here specifically on emotions that are caused by the prospect or presence of rejection by other people.

Answer 14

loneliness and rejection

Question 15

Think of ___ ____ relationships as non-sexualized friendships or family relationships that are close and carry great meaning / importance in people’s lives.

Answer 15

intimate platonic

Question 16

Think of a ___ ___ that involves some degree of sexual attraction and passion between people, typically involving just one romantic attachment at a time.

Answer 16

romantic relationship

Question 17

Having ____ ____ are highly related to being attracted to other people, although ___ ___ are usually the results of extended positive social interaction and (like attraction) can be sexual or non-sexual in nature.

Answer 17

intimate relationships

Question 18

______ _____ this theory describes how partners in a romantic relationship generally depend on the social interaction with another person for specific benefits, despite specific costs – in general, intimate relationships exist because the good generally outweigh the bad.

Answer 18

Interdependence Theory

Question 19

People tend to evaluate the relationship between advantages / disadvantages of an intimate relationship based on their expectations about what benefits are deserved (____ ___ ___ ___) and the available alternatives to the intimate relationship.

Answer 19

comparison level or CL

Question 20

the ___ ___ ___ ___ attempts to explain what factors influence the status of an intimate relationship from the time two partners meet and throughout the duration of their intimate relationship…

Answer 20

Intimate Relationship Mind model

Question 21

The theories that people use to explain what occurs within the confines of their intimate relationships (___ ____) are based on experiences in previous intimate relationships.

Answer 21

lay theories

Question 22

What variables predict experiencing more or less attraction?

Answer 22

(1) target factors
(2) perceiver factors
(3) relationship factors
(4) environmental factors

Question 23

__________

(1) behavioral consequences
(2) cognitive, motivational, and self-regulatory consequences
(3) emotional consequences.

Answer 23

Consequences of rejection

Question 24

A ___ is two or more individuals who are connected by their social relationships (Forsyth, 2010).

Answer 24

group

Question 25

The nature of these relationships will sustain a __ – in general, a group maintains it’s existence because the members of the group have relationships with each other that function

Answer 25

group

Question 26

_______ is the ideas we have about our perceptions of people, like similarity, proximity, and common goals – this can be the outsiders’ perceptions of a different group as well as the insiders’ perception of their group’s unity (Campbell, 1958).

Answer 26

Entitativity

Question 27

1. small intimate (primary groups)
2. more socially oriented groups
3. collectives
4. categories

Answer 27

4 types of groups

Question 28

There is some argument among social psychologists about whether group members’ behaviors/thoughts/emotions are most influenced by their perspective of belonging to the ___ ____ or their___ ___ about the group. Both types of group experiences affect the way in which members perceive the group and think/feel/behave…

Answer 28

overall group ; individual perspective

Question 29

___ ___ ____ is the tendency for people to believe that other people’s behaviors are caused by their own individual qualities rather than external, group level forces

Answer 29

Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

Question 30

HOW do people join or identify with a group?

Most often individuals will choose to include themselves in a group, but often times people find themselves identifying themselves with a group due to ___ and ___ ____

Answer 30

environmental and unforeseen motivations

Question 31

WHY do people join or identify with a group?Baumeister and Leary (1995) argue that human beings have an instinctual need to find social relationships and ___ ___

Answer 31

avoid isolation.

Question 32

________ theory is the tendency for many mammals (and especially primates) to establish status networks (where some members have more ability to influence the group than other members.

Generally higher “status” within the group is established through demon-stration of some ability – this may be physical prowess, mental ability, or the ability to provide resources for the group.

Answer 32

expectation-states

Question 33

____ ____ are usually organized by a common belief system, communal goal, shared attitudes, etc.

Example: Religious organizations tend to be structured with common goals in mind and firmly established beliefs for all members

Answer 33

Sociometric relationships

Question 34

_____ ____ ____ is the type of approach used to map out the relationships between people and account for group dynamics between people within the overall group. When an event occurs, the complex “web” of social connections result in very specific patterns of behavior that can many times be predicted.

Answer 34

Social Network Analysis (SNA)

Question 35

The ____ of the group is how many linked relationships make up the social network. More ___ in a group makes harder to predict the effect of specific behaviors as the result of a given social interaction.

Answer 35

density

Question 36

The ___ of a group represents each person’s social connections in reference to the entire group – in a way, this is an average measure of how connected each person is with other people.

Answer 36

centrality

Question 37

1. Group cohesion (sharing a common goal)
2. Having a clear purpose/role towards the group’s goal
3. Close/functional member relationships 4.Good leadership / hierarchy structure
4. Member loyalty commitment, and trust in group members

Answer 37

reasons why some groups do better than others

Question 38

psychologists define __ ___ as whenever individuals belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group or its members in terms of their group identification

Answer 38

intergroup interactions

Question 39

The person perceiving intergroup interaction generally identifies themselves as a member of a group – this is the _____

Answer 39

in-group.

Question 40

1. A member of an in-group perceives that group to be more similar to themselves compared to members of the outgroup.
2. Positive emotional response (trust, liking) purposefully generalized to ingroup membersbut not outgroup members
3. Intergroup social comparison and perceived competition between ingroup and outgroup for positive value..

Answer 40

3 requirements that lead to “us vs then” mentality

Question 41

_____ is when we tend to positively evaluate ingroup features and negatively evaluate outgroup features.

Answer 41

In-group bias

Question 42

However, some individuals strongly identify with groups that are often stigmatized or ____… it is not always the benefits that a group achieves that attracts a person to the group

Answer 42

disadvantaged

Question 43

The term ____ ____ describes the theory that a person actively seeks out inclusion within groups for a sense of belonging, while discriminating themselves from other groups (Brewer, 1991; Baumeister and Leary, 1995)

Answer 43

optimal distinctiveness

Question 44

One of the most influential theories of intergroup conflict is called ___

Answer 44

Realistic

Question 45

____ _____ ____ this involves testing scenarios that are as close to real life as possible to examine how in-group & out-group relationships can be manipulated

Answer 45

Group Conflict Theory.

Question 46

Robber’s Cave and Stanford Prison Experiment are examples of ___ __ __

Answer 46

Group Conflict Theory.

Question 47

___ ____ ___ (Stephan & Stephan, 2000) posits that there are 4 distinct sources of experienced threat that in-group members perceive as originating from out-group members:
1. Realistic threats- threats to the existence, power, or material well-being of the ingroup or ingroup members)

2. Symbolic threats- (threats to the ingroup worldview arising from perceived groupdifferences in morals, values, and standards)
3. intergroup anxiety- (personal fear or discomfort experienced in connection with actual or anticipated interactions with members of the outgroup)
4. negative stereotypes- (beliefs about outgroup characteristics)

Answer 47

Integrated threat theory

Question 48

___ ____ individual group member’s relative perspective that they have less than what is deserved compared to other out-groups

Answer 48

Relative deprivation

Question 49

___ ___ a group’s shared comparisons between the outcomes of their in-group as a whole and those of more advantaged out-groups.

Answer 49

Fraternal deprivation

Question 50

___ ___ -Individuals group members dissociate themselves from the lower-status ingroup and seek identification with the higher-status outgroup (or vice versa).

Answer 50

Individual mobility

Question 51

___ ___- Group members attempt to redefine how they compare to other groups in order to assigned higher values to their ingroup rather than relevant outgroups

For example: The “black lives mater” movement in the United States is an example of this strategy. This option alters the implications for group self-esteem and comparison with other social / ethnic groups.

Answer 51

Social creativity

Question 52

______ ____ – This type of attempt engages members of the in-group in direct competition with higher-status outgroups (or vice versa). This type of direct intergroup interaction is the most likely scenario that can lead to conflict when the ingroup/outgroup perceives that the opposing group is actively depriving the other of resources or social mobility.

Answer 52

Social competition

Question 53

_____ generally describes how much upward mobility exists for ingroups in lower social systems.

Answer 53

Permeability

Question 54

____ is how the Indian caste system changed from British Colonization

Answer 54

Permeability

Question 55

____ is the gradual change in many organisms’ physical/behavioral/mental abilities based on genetic and/or environmental factors over time.

Answer 55

evolution

Question 56

___ generally depends on:
(1)survival of organisms

(2)their ability to reproduce

Over time, an organism’s abilities may deprive it from accessing resources in its environment (A change in the climate or within a social system).

Answer 56

Evolution

Question 57

____ survived and reproduced from their ability to cooperate and their cognitive ability

Answer 57

humans

Question 58

Extraversion – social cooperativeness, mating potential

Neuroticism – survival, avoiding danger

Openness – more able to creatively develop solutions to threats/ problems

Concientiousness – enforce group safety, functional reproductive success, and survival of overall group

Agreeableness – greater empathy, positive interactions with group members reinforces relationships, and increases reproductive potential

Answer 58

Big 5 Personality Types

Question 59

advantage of _________ is the possibility of gaining and maintaining status generally allows individuals greater access to material resources and/or social alliances

Answer 59

Big 5 Personality Types

Question 60

For the vast majority of human history, our ancestors lived in groups. Successful _____ among group members greatly increased each person’s probability of surviving, prospering, and eventually reproducing…

Answer 60

cooperation

Question 61

_____ is perceiving objects or events and coming to a conclusion about whether they are good or bad (valence judgments) or likely to occur

Answer 61

Judgement

Question 62

A ___ is a commitment (to oneself or publically) to an option or course of action selected from among a set of options. ____ have outcomes, which are the circumstances or state…

Answer 62

decision

Question 63

A ___ ___ is a subjective evaluation of the affective implications of a decision’s outcome (how much joy, pleasure, closure, satisfaction, etc. comes from a particular course of action).

Answer 63

decision’s utility

Question 64

____ ___ This theory states “people make a decision by determining the likelihood that each option’s outcome will occur and the value of the outcome in question. Then they multiply the likelihood and value for each option and compare these across options. Whichever option has the highest

Answer 64

Subjective expected utility theory

Question 65

____ ___ focuses mostly on how and why people make irrational decisions compared with rational decisions. Generally speaking, when there are less prospects for making decisions, people are likely to make more rational / valuable decisions with greater payoffs compared to when there are more options.

Answer 65

Prospect theory

Question 66

Generally, people are___ ___. This means that the cognitive impact of losing something desirable is more influential than the cognitive impact of gaining something.

For example: Breakups or failures are more likely recalled and have a greater influence on future behavior than hookups or successes. Getting fired from one job generally has the same emotional intensity as getting hired twice

Answer 66

loss aversive.

Question 67

____ ___ (most commonly known as “food aversion”) is a phenomenon where an organism will prioritize avoiding a particular stimuli (smell, sound, taste, etc.) if they experienced an unpleasant sensation (allergic reaction, illness) directly after exposing themselves to that stimuli.

For example: Trying a new energy drink for the first time and then throwing up directly afterwards will likely influence your behavior to never try that energy drink again. Even if the drink had nothing to do with making you ill, many organisms have built in biological mechanisms to steer their decisions away from certain stimuli that could

Answer 67

Stimuli aversion

Question 68

what is the impact of a bad event and how does it influence how we perceive good events by comparison?

Answer 68

It takes double the positive interact-ions in a social relationship to make up for one negative interaction.

Question 69

A very famous research experiment by Kahneman, Knetsch, & Thaler, (1990) separated students into 2 groups – members of one group were given a small gift (coffee mug, t-shirt) with the university’s logo on it, while members of the other student group see the same items but are not told that they will receive them as gifts.

Those who get the gifts were asked how much they would charge to sell it and those who did not get the gifts are asked how much they would offer to buy it. Remarkably, people who received the gift ask for considerably more money to sell their items than people who did not receive a gift.

This is known as the ___ ___

Answer 69

Endowment effect

Question 70

_____ ____ are “values that people associate withdifferent outcomes are not stable but rather can be altered by the situation”

For example: A person can persist in doing something they no longer enjoy because they have invested time, money, effort, etc. into the activity. Women in abusive relationships demonstrated the sunken cost effect by staying in these relationships that they no longer valued or were dangerous to their safety.

Answer 70

Constructed preferences

Question 71

____ is a psychological tool used in persuading individuals to make specific decisions - depending on the way information is given to a decision maker. Usually the information is not changed, but presented in a way to persuade a person’s decisions towards one specific outcome.

Answer 71

Framing (Tversky & Khaneman) 1974

Question 72

The ____ ____ is another psychological phenomenon that lead decision makers to make irrational judgments. Huber, Payne, & Puto (1982) described that when people are faced with two options that are fairly close in expected value, people should choose equally between two options (donuts vs. ice cream).

Answer 72

attraction effect

Question 73

The ___ ___ (Simonson, 1989) occurs when people make decisions where features of something are traded for another. This is most evident in consumer products – a specific low end phone might have worse features but cost less ($100), while a medium range phone has better features and costs more ($300). Compare these choices to a very high quality phone that costs a lot of money ($500).

Answer 73

compromise effect

Question 74

_____ ____ making demonstrates either laziness or conformity in people’s decision making processes. When decision makers are ambivalent regarding the consequences of their choices, they tend to behave in similar ways to the original choice they made.

For example: If you choose a seat at the beginning of the semester, you are likely to sit in that seat for the rest of the semester. When you go to a restaurant, you are more likely to order the same thing over multiple occasions. This may be done simply as habit or because the cognitive effort to change this behavior is too involved for something that may not be that important.

Answer 74

Default decision

Question 75

____ are like “schemas” in that they are functional cognitive explanations of the world based on experience that help people make decisions (Payne, Bettman, & Johnson 1993; Gigerenzer & Goldstein, 1996).

Answer 75

Heuristics

Question 76

____ are almost exclusively utilized when the information people are processing is too complex or time is specifically too short to make a rational, thought out decision. This makes decisions based on ____ explanations prone to errors.

Answer 76

heuristics

Question 77

_____ ____ refers to people’s ability to judge how they will feel in the future. People seem to possess a general understanding of whether a decision will lead to positive or negative experiences (i.e. getting married or taking a test).

Answer 77

Affective forecasting

Question 78

why do we use affective forecasting? What is the problem with using it?

Answer 78

they frequently misjudge how intense their feelings will be after a decision and how long these feelings will last

Question 79

___ __

1. Quick decision/judgement
2. Little cognitive effort
3. Heuristics used

Answer 79

System 1

Question 80

1. Slower time for decisions

2. High amount of cognitive used

Answer 80

System 2

Question 81

The _____ ___ (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) occurs when decision makers judge something to be highly likely just because it is associated with information that was easy to remember.

Answer 81

availability bias

Question 82

This the ____ ___, which argues that people are likely to make a decision based on what seems to most natural in a given context.

Answer 82

representative heuristic

Question 83

_____ ___ __ this is the process of actively attending to a cognition, committing to this internal representation and adjusting future (often unrelated) behavior based on this initial thought/feeling.

Answer 83

Anchoring and adjustment

Question 84

Increased Cognitive Processing Can Cause ____

Answer 84

Error

Question 85

This when you overthink a test questions or a person’s social intentions. Sometimes the best way to process something is by using ___ ___ (or “gut feelings”) rather than overanalyzing something.

Answer 85

heuristic processes

Question 86

____ ___ ___ – thismodel argued that decision makers’ judgments about specifically risky decisions are driven by the emotional state that is related to all of the options. \

Answer 86

Intuitive Affective Processes

Question 87

how can emotional states (fear or regret) be good or bad for your decision making abilities

Answer 87

For example: If positive emotions are associated with the cognitive representation of gambling, choosing to engage in this behavior likely enhances how a person perceives wins (more positive emotional reactions), while using less analysis of

Having negative affect regarding some decision involving risk (living next to a nuclear power plant) could increase a person’s judgement about the actual risk involved, which is actually very low (Slovic et al., 2007).

Question 88

How did individuals with brain damage (Phones gage) help early neuroscientists understand brain functioning?

Answer 88

This suggested that damage to the area of the brain could affect one aspect of a person’s personality and social function while NOT affecting other areas. There were localized areas of the brain that controlled specific functions… this was clear without looking inside the brain (only observing damage from outside the brain).

Question 89

Édouard Claparède conducted experiments in the late 19th century on a woman who had experienced head trauma and could not form new memories (although she could recall old memories and had basic cognitive skills).

Claparède interacted with the women every day, each time shaking her hand. Each new day she could not remember him or the previous encounter the day before. After a number of meetings, he hid a pin in his hand when he shook her hand, which obviously caused her a lot of pain. Interestingly, she could not remember him on following days, but eventually would not shake his hand stating that “sometimes people hide pins in their hands as a practical joke” (Reisberg, p. 221)

Answer 89

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Question 90

In the 1970’s and 1980’s, ____ ___ ___ was created, which allowed researchers to see structures of the brain within a person for the first time. This allowed expert neuroscientists the possibility to explain how the brain localizes different centers and theorize how these centers appear to be working to produce different cognitive abilities.

Answer 90

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Question 91

___ ___ ( ___), researchers were able to see how the structure of the brain appeared and see the processes/activity within these structures as people performed activities. This measures changes in blood and oxygen throughout the brain using magnetic sensitive materials.

Answer 91

functionial MRI’s (fMRI)

Question 92

___ ___ ___allows researchers to see where blood is moving in the body by injecting mildly radioactive solution into a person and then measuring them with a machine that can detect the emissions of radioactive particles from within the body.

Answer 92

Positron Emissions Tomography (PET)

Question 93

This allows researchers to see where blood is going when participants are performing certain mental / physical tasks.

Answer 93

Positron Emissions Tomography (PET)

Question 94

__ ___ ___ is an amazing technology that has been developed to stop brain activity in certain regions of the brain, with little to no side effects. Using electromagnetic pulses to halt blood flow, this technology allows researchers to disable functioning in the brain (much like your hand falling sleep) and measure its’ effects on behavior.

Answer 94

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Question 95

This demonstrates how the brain may not localize function of individual abilities in specific areas. This suggests that the brain is able to “re-wire itself” and adapts it’s functionality to the environment. This is known as __ ___

Answer 95

brain plasticity

Question 96

electric/magnetic activity - these can be used to understand the timing of brain activity or how quickly the brain is sending out signals (___ ___)

Answer 96

temporal resolution

Question 97

Blood flow – determining where neural activity is occurring (____ ____) is sometimes more important than determining the speed of neural activity.

Answer 97

spatial resolution

Question 98

determining where neural activity is occurring (___ ___ is sometimes more important than determining the speed of neural activity. However, since blood moves much slower than electromagnetic impulses, the temporal resolution of this method of collecting data from the brain is poor.

Answer 98

spatial resolution)

Question 99

___ This method allows researchers to measure the TOTAL amount of electric impulses transmitted from the brain during various activities

Answer 99

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Question 100

These are “very small voltages generated in the brain structures in response to specific events or stimuli” (Blackwood and Muir, 1990).

They are multiple ___ measurements that are combined to form a “wave” or graphical interpretation which describes how intense and how lasting different electromagnetic pulses from the brain last (Sur & Sinha, 2009).

Answer 100

Event Related Potentials (ERP)

Question 101

______ Although much more expensive than using EEGs or ERPs, ___ scans allow researchers to measure the magnetic fields of brain activity, which dissipate throughout the brain from the sourcethat they originate from. This allows researchers to locate the sources of brain activity (the electromagnetic pulses) but see the extent to which these magnetic fields spread.

Answer 101

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Question 102

Most imaging methods involve correlation, which gives a general relationship between brain signal intensity, duration, and activation but does NOT measure the direct cause or source of these signals in the first place.

In addition, measuring electromagnetic pulses transmitted from the brain is a huge mystery. Although researchers are able to measure these, they are still unsure what they are measuring in the first place.

Answer 102

Limitations of Neural Imagining Techniques

Question 103

__ __ __ is an area of the brain that activates when a configuration of features that closely resemble faces are present. This area of the brain is part of our anatomy and seems to suggest that at least some space in the brain is dedicated to identifying, recognizing, and searching through facial differences.

Answer 103

The fusiform gyrus

Question 104

the ___ ___ ___ has been measured by neuroimaging devices countless of times. This area of the brain processes human voices and movement (specifically). The region also is highly active when a person learns information or sees movement of another person that is highly emotional in nature.

Answer 104

Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS)

Question 105

The ___ __ __ is an interesting set of observations about what is needed (neurologically) for human social interaction to occur. This system explains that we regulate our own state of social connectedness with others because we are…

Answer 105

“theory of mind”

Question 106

__ ___ __ ___ region of the brain showed that referencing memories or identifying traits of others that a person considers close (family members, romantic partners, close friends) also activates areas of the brain associated with the self.

Answer 106

Medial Prefrontal cortex (MPFC)

Question 107

This activation effect is usually so quick that pictures presented for only ~30 ms active the ___. However, longer presentation of these pictures shows much less activation of the amygdala and greater engagement of the ___ ___

Answer 107

amygdala ; prefrontal cortex

Question 108

This may be due to specific neural developments that occur around this age in the temporal poles and temporal parietal junction. After ~4 years old, these regions of the brain grow exponentially in normally developing children. Even 4 year old children with Down’s Syndrome are able to correctly answer this Sally-Ann problem. However, children with Autism have marked difficulties with the Sally-Ann problem (that Sally’s experience and perception of reality is different than what was perceived).

Answer 108

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