Exam 3 Flashcards
_____ involves positively evaluating another person and manifesting behavior to approach them or strengthen a social relationship with them
Attraction (definition)
- Target factors- physical attractiveness, facial features, symmetry, etc.
- Perceiver factors- comparison standards, misattribution of arousal, similarities.
- Relationship factors- interpersonal dynamics, reciprocity of attraction, self-serving
- Environmental factors- social network, cultural norms, scarcity, proximity
4 factors that helming predict attraction
______ ________ – perceivers are attracted to target that are rewarding in some ways (those who can provide either immediate gratification or delayed gratification)
Reinforcement theories
___ _____ ____ – perceivers prefer congruence among their thoughts, feelings, and interpersonal relationships.
•The idea here is that we tend to be attracted to whatever is easiest for us to process and maintain our own beliefs/behaviors
Cognitive consistency theories
___ _____ ____ suggest that over time certain biological methods have evolved from social and environment factors that favor attraction as an adaptive advantage
evolutionary psychology theories
___ ___ ____ idea here is that we are attracted to certain body types, face types, heights, similar demographic features, etc. of a person because for millions of years, these features in mates have been most successful in providing security and offspring
evolutionary psychology theories
____ means being chosen by no one as a desirable partner.
rejection
____ means getting active feedback that separates or weakens a relationship.
rejection
___ is another area of rejection research that focuses on rejection from multiple individuals at once
Ostracism
____ ____ aim to explain how the behaviors of people weaken or separate a social bond influences the social cognition and social interactions of the person being rejected.
rejection theories
Some of the saddest examples of how lack of social interaction can affect human beings are the cases of ___ ____. These are extreme cases where very young children are either abandoned or lost by their parents, but somehow survive on their own in the forest, jungle, etc. While some have formed bondswith other organisms, their social contact with humans was almost completely absent
feral children.
The devastating effects of ____ _____ are well documented in social psychology. Solitary confinement of prisoners may be necessary for safety reasons, but limiting physical contact and social interaction to 1 hour per day is highly stressful and emotionally damaging
social isolation
- Behavioral- school shootings, aggression
- cognitive, motivational, and self-regulatory- intelligence, more interesting socializing
- emotional response- pain response
3 types of consequences from rejection
For example, embarrassment, hurt feelings, and loneliness are inherently social emotions that involve threats and challenges that arise in interpersonal interactions and relationships. We focus here specifically on emotions that are caused by the prospect or presence of rejection by other people.
loneliness and rejection
Think of ___ ____ relationships as non-sexualized friendships or family relationships that are close and carry great meaning / importance in people’s lives.
intimate platonic
Think of a ___ ___ that involves some degree of sexual attraction and passion between people, typically involving just one romantic attachment at a time.
romantic relationship
Having ____ ____ are highly related to being attracted to other people, although ___ ___ are usually the results of extended positive social interaction and (like attraction) can be sexual or non-sexual in nature.
intimate relationships
______ _____ this theory describes how partners in a romantic relationship generally depend on the social interaction with another person for specific benefits, despite specific costs – in general, intimate relationships exist because the good generally outweigh the bad.
Interdependence Theory
People tend to evaluate the relationship between advantages / disadvantages of an intimate relationship based on their expectations about what benefits are deserved (____ ___ ___ ___) and the available alternatives to the intimate relationship.
comparison level or CL
the ___ ___ ___ ___ attempts to explain what factors influence the status of an intimate relationship from the time two partners meet and throughout the duration of their intimate relationship…
Intimate Relationship Mind model
The theories that people use to explain what occurs within the confines of their intimate relationships (___ ____) are based on experiences in previous intimate relationships.
lay theories
What variables predict experiencing more or less attraction?
(1) target factors
(2) perceiver factors
(3) relationship factors
(4) environmental factors
__________
(1) behavioral consequences
(2) cognitive, motivational, and self-regulatory consequences
(3) emotional consequences.
Consequences of rejection
A ___ is two or more individuals who are connected by their social relationships (Forsyth, 2010).
group
The nature of these relationships will sustain a __ – in general, a group maintains it’s existence because the members of the group have relationships with each other that function
group
_______ is the ideas we have about our perceptions of people, like similarity, proximity, and common goals – this can be the outsiders’ perceptions of a different group as well as the insiders’ perception of their group’s unity (Campbell, 1958).
Entitativity
- small intimate (primary groups)
- more socially oriented groups
- collectives
- categories
4 types of groups
There is some argument among social psychologists about whether group members’ behaviors/thoughts/emotions are most influenced by their perspective of belonging to the ___ ____ or their___ ___ about the group. Both types of group experiences affect the way in which members perceive the group and think/feel/behave…
overall group ; individual perspective
___ ___ ____ is the tendency for people to believe that other people’s behaviors are caused by their own individual qualities rather than external, group level forces
Fundamental attribution error (FAE)
HOW do people join or identify with a group?
Most often individuals will choose to include themselves in a group, but often times people find themselves identifying themselves with a group due to ___ and ___ ____
environmental and unforeseen motivations
WHY do people join or identify with a group?Baumeister and Leary (1995) argue that human beings have an instinctual need to find social relationships and ___ ___
avoid isolation.
________ theory is the tendency for many mammals (and especially primates) to establish status networks (where some members have more ability to influence the group than other members.
Generally higher “status” within the group is established through demon-stration of some ability – this may be physical prowess, mental ability, or the ability to provide resources for the group.
expectation-states
____ ____ are usually organized by a common belief system, communal goal, shared attitudes, etc.
Example: Religious organizations tend to be structured with common goals in mind and firmly established beliefs for all members
Sociometric relationships
_____ ____ ____ is the type of approach used to map out the relationships between people and account for group dynamics between people within the overall group. When an event occurs, the complex “web” of social connections result in very specific patterns of behavior that can many times be predicted.
Social Network Analysis (SNA)
The ____ of the group is how many linked relationships make up the social network. More ___ in a group makes harder to predict the effect of specific behaviors as the result of a given social interaction.
density
The ___ of a group represents each person’s social connections in reference to the entire group – in a way, this is an average measure of how connected each person is with other people.
centrality
- Group cohesion (sharing a common goal)
- Having a clear purpose/role towards the group’s goal
- Close/functional member relationships 4.Good leadership / hierarchy structure
- Member loyalty commitment, and trust in group members
reasons why some groups do better than others
psychologists define __ ___ as whenever individuals belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group or its members in terms of their group identification
intergroup interactions
The person perceiving intergroup interaction generally identifies themselves as a member of a group – this is the _____
in-group.
- A member of an in-group perceives that group to be more similar to themselves compared to members of the outgroup.
- Positive emotional response (trust, liking) purposefully generalized to ingroup membersbut not outgroup members
- Intergroup social comparison and perceived competition between ingroup and outgroup for positive value..
3 requirements that lead to “us vs then” mentality
_____ is when we tend to positively evaluate ingroup features and negatively evaluate outgroup features.
In-group bias
However, some individuals strongly identify with groups that are often stigmatized or ____… it is not always the benefits that a group achieves that attracts a person to the group
disadvantaged
The term ____ ____ describes the theory that a person actively seeks out inclusion within groups for a sense of belonging, while discriminating themselves from other groups (Brewer, 1991; Baumeister and Leary, 1995)
optimal distinctiveness
One of the most influential theories of intergroup conflict is called ___
Realistic
____ _____ ____ this involves testing scenarios that are as close to real life as possible to examine how in-group & out-group relationships can be manipulated
Group Conflict Theory.
Robber’s Cave and Stanford Prison Experiment are examples of ___ __ __
Group Conflict Theory.
___ ____ ___ (Stephan & Stephan, 2000) posits that there are 4 distinct sources of experienced threat that in-group members perceive as originating from out-group members:
1. Realistic threats- threats to the existence, power, or material well-being of the ingroup or ingroup members)
- Symbolic threats- (threats to the ingroup worldview arising from perceived groupdifferences in morals, values, and standards)
- intergroup anxiety- (personal fear or discomfort experienced in connection with actual or anticipated interactions with members of the outgroup)
- negative stereotypes- (beliefs about outgroup characteristics)
Integrated threat theory
___ ____ individual group member’s relative perspective that they have less than what is deserved compared to other out-groups
Relative deprivation
___ ___ a group’s shared comparisons between the outcomes of their in-group as a whole and those of more advantaged out-groups.
Fraternal deprivation
___ ___ -Individuals group members dissociate themselves from the lower-status ingroup and seek identification with the higher-status outgroup (or vice versa).
Individual mobility
___ ___- Group members attempt to redefine how they compare to other groups in order to assigned higher values to their ingroup rather than relevant outgroups
For example: The “black lives mater” movement in the United States is an example of this strategy. This option alters the implications for group self-esteem and comparison with other social / ethnic groups.
Social creativity
______ ____ – This type of attempt engages members of the in-group in direct competition with higher-status outgroups (or vice versa). This type of direct intergroup interaction is the most likely scenario that can lead to conflict when the ingroup/outgroup perceives that the opposing group is actively depriving the other of resources or social mobility.
Social competition
_____ generally describes how much upward mobility exists for ingroups in lower social systems.
Permeability
____ is how the Indian caste system changed from British Colonization
Permeability
____ is the gradual change in many organisms’ physical/behavioral/mental abilities based on genetic and/or environmental factors over time.
evolution
___ generally depends on:
(1)survival of organisms
(2)their ability to reproduce
Over time, an organism’s abilities may deprive it from accessing resources in its environment (A change in the climate or within a social system).
Evolution
____ survived and reproduced from their ability to cooperate and their cognitive ability
humans
Extraversion – social cooperativeness, mating potential
Neuroticism – survival, avoiding danger
Openness – more able to creatively develop solutions to threats/ problems
Concientiousness – enforce group safety, functional reproductive success, and survival of overall group
Agreeableness – greater empathy, positive interactions with group members reinforces relationships, and increases reproductive potential
Big 5 Personality Types
advantage of _________ is the possibility of gaining and maintaining status generally allows individuals greater access to material resources and/or social alliances
Big 5 Personality Types
For the vast majority of human history, our ancestors lived in groups. Successful _____ among group members greatly increased each person’s probability of surviving, prospering, and eventually reproducing…
cooperation
_____ is perceiving objects or events and coming to a conclusion about whether they are good or bad (valence judgments) or likely to occur
Judgement
A ___ is a commitment (to oneself or publically) to an option or course of action selected from among a set of options. ____ have outcomes, which are the circumstances or state…
decision
A ___ ___ is a subjective evaluation of the affective implications of a decision’s outcome (how much joy, pleasure, closure, satisfaction, etc. comes from a particular course of action).
decision’s utility
____ ___ This theory states “people make a decision by determining the likelihood that each option’s outcome will occur and the value of the outcome in question. Then they multiply the likelihood and value for each option and compare these across options. Whichever option has the highest
Subjective expected utility theory
____ ___ focuses mostly on how and why people make irrational decisions compared with rational decisions. Generally speaking, when there are less prospects for making decisions, people are likely to make more rational / valuable decisions with greater payoffs compared to when there are more options.
Prospect theory
Generally, people are___ ___. This means that the cognitive impact of losing something desirable is more influential than the cognitive impact of gaining something.
For example: Breakups or failures are more likely recalled and have a greater influence on future behavior than hookups or successes. Getting fired from one job generally has the same emotional intensity as getting hired twice
loss aversive.
____ ___ (most commonly known as “food aversion”) is a phenomenon where an organism will prioritize avoiding a particular stimuli (smell, sound, taste, etc.) if they experienced an unpleasant sensation (allergic reaction, illness) directly after exposing themselves to that stimuli.
For example: Trying a new energy drink for the first time and then throwing up directly afterwards will likely influence your behavior to never try that energy drink again. Even if the drink had nothing to do with making you ill, many organisms have built in biological mechanisms to steer their decisions away from certain stimuli that could
Stimuli aversion
what is the impact of a bad event and how does it influence how we perceive good events by comparison?
It takes double the positive interact-ions in a social relationship to make up for one negative interaction.
A very famous research experiment by Kahneman, Knetsch, & Thaler, (1990) separated students into 2 groups – members of one group were given a small gift (coffee mug, t-shirt) with the university’s logo on it, while members of the other student group see the same items but are not told that they will receive them as gifts.
Those who get the gifts were asked how much they would charge to sell it and those who did not get the gifts are asked how much they would offer to buy it. Remarkably, people who received the gift ask for considerably more money to sell their items than people who did not receive a gift.
This is known as the ___ ___
Endowment effect
_____ ____ are “values that people associate withdifferent outcomes are not stable but rather can be altered by the situation”
For example: A person can persist in doing something they no longer enjoy because they have invested time, money, effort, etc. into the activity. Women in abusive relationships demonstrated the sunken cost effect by staying in these relationships that they no longer valued or were dangerous to their safety.
Constructed preferences
____ is a psychological tool used in persuading individuals to make specific decisions - depending on the way information is given to a decision maker. Usually the information is not changed, but presented in a way to persuade a person’s decisions towards one specific outcome.
Framing (Tversky & Khaneman) 1974
The ____ ____ is another psychological phenomenon that lead decision makers to make irrational judgments. Huber, Payne, & Puto (1982) described that when people are faced with two options that are fairly close in expected value, people should choose equally between two options (donuts vs. ice cream).
attraction effect
The ___ ___ (Simonson, 1989) occurs when people make decisions where features of something are traded for another. This is most evident in consumer products – a specific low end phone might have worse features but cost less ($100), while a medium range phone has better features and costs more ($300). Compare these choices to a very high quality phone that costs a lot of money ($500).
compromise effect
_____ ____ making demonstrates either laziness or conformity in people’s decision making processes. When decision makers are ambivalent regarding the consequences of their choices, they tend to behave in similar ways to the original choice they made.
For example: If you choose a seat at the beginning of the semester, you are likely to sit in that seat for the rest of the semester. When you go to a restaurant, you are more likely to order the same thing over multiple occasions. This may be done simply as habit or because the cognitive effort to change this behavior is too involved for something that may not be that important.
Default decision
____ are like “schemas” in that they are functional cognitive explanations of the world based on experience that help people make decisions (Payne, Bettman, & Johnson 1993; Gigerenzer & Goldstein, 1996).
Heuristics
____ are almost exclusively utilized when the information people are processing is too complex or time is specifically too short to make a rational, thought out decision. This makes decisions based on ____ explanations prone to errors.
heuristics
_____ ____ refers to people’s ability to judge how they will feel in the future. People seem to possess a general understanding of whether a decision will lead to positive or negative experiences (i.e. getting married or taking a test).
Affective forecasting
why do we use affective forecasting? What is the problem with using it?
they frequently misjudge how intense their feelings will be after a decision and how long these feelings will last
___ __
- Quick decision/judgement
- Little cognitive effort
- Heuristics used
System 1
- Slower time for decisions
2. High amount of cognitive used
System 2
The _____ ___ (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) occurs when decision makers judge something to be highly likely just because it is associated with information that was easy to remember.
availability bias
This the ____ ___, which argues that people are likely to make a decision based on what seems to most natural in a given context.
representative heuristic
_____ ___ __ this is the process of actively attending to a cognition, committing to this internal representation and adjusting future (often unrelated) behavior based on this initial thought/feeling.
Anchoring and adjustment
Increased Cognitive Processing Can Cause ____
Error
This when you overthink a test questions or a person’s social intentions. Sometimes the best way to process something is by using ___ ___ (or “gut feelings”) rather than overanalyzing something.
heuristic processes
____ ___ ___ – thismodel argued that decision makers’ judgments about specifically risky decisions are driven by the emotional state that is related to all of the options. \
Intuitive Affective Processes
how can emotional states (fear or regret) be good or bad for your decision making abilities
For example: If positive emotions are associated with the cognitive representation of gambling, choosing to engage in this behavior likely enhances how a person perceives wins (more positive emotional reactions), while using less analysis of
Having negative affect regarding some decision involving risk (living next to a nuclear power plant) could increase a person’s judgement about the actual risk involved, which is actually very low (Slovic et al., 2007).
How did individuals with brain damage (Phones gage) help early neuroscientists understand brain functioning?
This suggested that damage to the area of the brain could affect one aspect of a person’s personality and social function while NOT affecting other areas. There were localized areas of the brain that controlled specific functions… this was clear without looking inside the brain (only observing damage from outside the brain).
Édouard Claparède conducted experiments in the late 19th century on a woman who had experienced head trauma and could not form new memories (although she could recall old memories and had basic cognitive skills).
Claparède interacted with the women every day, each time shaking her hand. Each new day she could not remember him or the previous encounter the day before. After a number of meetings, he hid a pin in his hand when he shook her hand, which obviously caused her a lot of pain. Interestingly, she could not remember him on following days, but eventually would not shake his hand stating that “sometimes people hide pins in their hands as a practical joke” (Reisberg, p. 221)
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In the 1970’s and 1980’s, ____ ___ ___ was created, which allowed researchers to see structures of the brain within a person for the first time. This allowed expert neuroscientists the possibility to explain how the brain localizes different centers and theorize how these centers appear to be working to produce different cognitive abilities.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
___ ___ ( ___), researchers were able to see how the structure of the brain appeared and see the processes/activity within these structures as people performed activities. This measures changes in blood and oxygen throughout the brain using magnetic sensitive materials.
functionial MRI’s (fMRI)
___ ___ ___allows researchers to see where blood is moving in the body by injecting mildly radioactive solution into a person and then measuring them with a machine that can detect the emissions of radioactive particles from within the body.
Positron Emissions Tomography (PET)
This allows researchers to see where blood is going when participants are performing certain mental / physical tasks.
Positron Emissions Tomography (PET)
__ ___ ___ is an amazing technology that has been developed to stop brain activity in certain regions of the brain, with little to no side effects. Using electromagnetic pulses to halt blood flow, this technology allows researchers to disable functioning in the brain (much like your hand falling sleep) and measure its’ effects on behavior.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
This demonstrates how the brain may not localize function of individual abilities in specific areas. This suggests that the brain is able to “re-wire itself” and adapts it’s functionality to the environment. This is known as __ ___
brain plasticity
electric/magnetic activity - these can be used to understand the timing of brain activity or how quickly the brain is sending out signals (___ ___)
temporal resolution
Blood flow – determining where neural activity is occurring (____ ____) is sometimes more important than determining the speed of neural activity.
spatial resolution
determining where neural activity is occurring (___ ___ is sometimes more important than determining the speed of neural activity. However, since blood moves much slower than electromagnetic impulses, the temporal resolution of this method of collecting data from the brain is poor.
spatial resolution)
___ This method allows researchers to measure the TOTAL amount of electric impulses transmitted from the brain during various activities
Electroencephalography (EEG)
These are “very small voltages generated in the brain structures in response to specific events or stimuli” (Blackwood and Muir, 1990).
They are multiple ___ measurements that are combined to form a “wave” or graphical interpretation which describes how intense and how lasting different electromagnetic pulses from the brain last (Sur & Sinha, 2009).
Event Related Potentials (ERP)
______ Although much more expensive than using EEGs or ERPs, ___ scans allow researchers to measure the magnetic fields of brain activity, which dissipate throughout the brain from the sourcethat they originate from. This allows researchers to locate the sources of brain activity (the electromagnetic pulses) but see the extent to which these magnetic fields spread.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Most imaging methods involve correlation, which gives a general relationship between brain signal intensity, duration, and activation but does NOT measure the direct cause or source of these signals in the first place.
In addition, measuring electromagnetic pulses transmitted from the brain is a huge mystery. Although researchers are able to measure these, they are still unsure what they are measuring in the first place.
Limitations of Neural Imagining Techniques
__ __ __ is an area of the brain that activates when a configuration of features that closely resemble faces are present. This area of the brain is part of our anatomy and seems to suggest that at least some space in the brain is dedicated to identifying, recognizing, and searching through facial differences.
The fusiform gyrus
the ___ ___ ___ has been measured by neuroimaging devices countless of times. This area of the brain processes human voices and movement (specifically). The region also is highly active when a person learns information or sees movement of another person that is highly emotional in nature.
Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS)
The ___ __ __ is an interesting set of observations about what is needed (neurologically) for human social interaction to occur. This system explains that we regulate our own state of social connectedness with others because we are…
“theory of mind”
__ ___ __ ___ region of the brain showed that referencing memories or identifying traits of others that a person considers close (family members, romantic partners, close friends) also activates areas of the brain associated with the self.
Medial Prefrontal cortex (MPFC)
This activation effect is usually so quick that pictures presented for only ~30 ms active the ___. However, longer presentation of these pictures shows much less activation of the amygdala and greater engagement of the ___ ___
amygdala ; prefrontal cortex
This may be due to specific neural developments that occur around this age in the temporal poles and temporal parietal junction. After ~4 years old, these regions of the brain grow exponentially in normally developing children. Even 4 year old children with Down’s Syndrome are able to correctly answer this Sally-Ann problem. However, children with Autism have marked difficulties with the Sally-Ann problem (that Sally’s experience and perception of reality is different than what was perceived).
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