Exam #1 Flashcards
____ _____(within the discipline of social psychology) is how individuals attempt to explain social behavior and events by looking at other people – that peoples’ thought processes and subjective perceptions of the social world around them influence their actions and behaviors
attribution theory
____ ___ relies heavily on theory and conceptual argument to explain the process of how internal thoughts (in a person’s mind) influence behavior
attribution theory
“She is always late to the class. She is very tardy” or “Ricardo is always sleeping in class. He’s always sleepy” this is an example of ……
internal attribution. we use internal, i.e., personality/ dispositional factors to explain others’ behavior.
-we only use the information that can be observed.
” I was late to the class because of the chaotic traffic” or “Ricardo is sleeping in class. He must be sleeping late every night”
external attribution. something on the outside caused/influenced the behavior.
-something on the outside may have influenced the behavior.
The ___________ model provides a universally useful structure for examining cognition…
information processing
Benefit of the ________________ : Instead of focusing on what the content of the final social interaction was (aggressive behavior, stereotyping behavior, positive attitude change), the model focuses on the process of a person’s cognition before they execute that social behavior
information processing model
Criticisms of this model:
• Since this model is based on what cognitive psychologists were interested in studying, it focuses solely on the process of the brain while leaving out a number of concerns central to social psychology.
• The model falls short in considering how emotion or motivation affect social cognition/ social interaction.
information processing model
This model ________ does not address involuntary social cognition or interaction – where yours or other’s behavior is neither attended to or remembered, but nonetheless leaves a lasting influence on your behavior.
information processing model
Person #1 will make try to make FEWER inferences about person #2’s traits when Person #2’s socially appropriate behavior can be explained by Person #1’s personality (as well as social norms). is known as ___________
or
Person #1 will make MORE judgements about Person #2’s traits when Person #2’s socially inappropriate behavior can be explained only by Person #1’s personality.
Correspondent inference theory
-it can go both ways. Either someone will judge you less if they can explain why you are doing certain actions or someone will make more judgements if they cannot find out why you are doing a certain action.
ex: Ricardo runs by the street naked. Someone has taken his clothes but no one knows that, only him. However, other people will judge him and think/ASSUME he is crazy. they are making MORE judgments of Ricardo, this is known as _______.
Correspondent inference theory
ex: If you read about someone getting into a car accident, you assume it’s because he’s a bad driver and not because he was simply unlucky. ASSUMING, not taking into consideration other motives or factors.
Correspondent inference theory
- People explain events in terms of things that are present when the event occurs
- People explain events in terms of things that are absent when an event does not occur
Example:
Suppose that you learned that your child got detention in school last Monday, but that he also gets detention in most of his other classes on that day. In fact, he gets detention most Mondays and most other days of the week, even though most other students do not get detention for their behavior. Most likely you would conclude that your child might have a behavior problem at school.
Kelly’s Covariation Theory
we use _____ to explain why people socially interact with each other
attribution theory
_______ deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal judgment
attribution theory
____ argues that people match an observed event with “schemas” – or generalized causal explanations conceived in the mind – that they already believe.
Schema Theory
___ allow us to quickly make sense of the people around us and either engage in social interaction with these people or avoid social interaction with these people
schemas
using ___ too much to guide your intuitions and actions can lead you to discriminate against people based on how they appear, speak, etc.
– this can lead someone to develop ____ ____ which could influence them to avoid social interaction with some people based on race, religion, sexual orientation, gender, etc.
persistent schemas
example of a ____ _____, stereotypes, social roles, scripts, worldviews, and archetypes.
-These ___ ___ help us to remember important this for the future. For example, if we encounter a dog that growls at us and we almost get bit. The next time you see a dog and it starts to growl you do not want to be around it.
social schemas
an example of ______ ____ is the meaningless video that most people interpreted as two males fighting for a females when in reality it was nothing.
schema theory
_________ ______: The idea here is that we generally are very efficient at coming up with cognitive schema for people based on limited information – this can be good or bad
Good: Identifying a potential threatening social situation before it happens - Stereotyping / Bad: Being prejudiced against a certain person
Impression-Memory Inconsistency
The theory is that you should have better memory of a person’s positive traits if you had a positive impression of that person’ and vice versa (if you have a negative impression of someone, you mostly remember their negative behaviors).
-suggests cognitive devices are at work to pay special attention to information that conflicts with our already existing impressions of a person
Impression-Memory Inconsistency
____ ___ (as a socially motivated cognitive process) comes from the limits of our brain
impression formation
The theory here is that when we encounter a new person, there are a lot of new things about this person that we encounter for the first time.
• We see, hear, smell, etc. everything new about this person at first, but our attention can only handle a limited amount of information at a time – just think, you didn’t really process the color of my shirt until I just said it (you were paying attention to other things)
So, our cognitive processes form impressions of new individuals we meet using schemas – our brains usually do this very efficiently so that we can quickly decide whether this new person is friendly or dangerous, warm or cold, attractive or unattractive (your life may depend on it)!
impression formation
- ______ refer to the inference of personality traits from behaviors.
- In ______ the inferred trait is attached to the actor, and –in ____ it is attached to a communicator.
trait transference (STT)
Spontaneous Trait Inference
STT
- When participants were asked to recall as many of these statements as possible, cues such as “helpful” (the trait cue) or “pipes” (an actor cue) made recall of statements better because of these cues
- This suggest that people spontaneously thought about implied traits about people while processing the original sentence!
Spontaneous Trait Inference
people associate certain traits with the person to help them remember them better
____ ____ ___ is the idea that you come up with impressions about people as you meet them, and these impressions are largely ((unconscious/involuntary!))
spontaneous trait inference
that first impression is usually the most important one – it’s the way a person paints a picture of you “cognitively” you from the very first time! (this is how people will remember you)
spontaneous trait inference
The idea is that what you learn is never truly forgotten – if someone learns something (a phone number, a fact in a textbook, everyone’s name in a classroom), these facts or ideas are able to be recalled. this is known as ?
savings in relearning principle”
by Hermann Ebbinghaus
give an example of “savings in relearning principle” theory
An old phone number, an old address, the name of your kindergarten teacher, etc. anything meaningful
But over time, without practice, what was learned cannot be recalled as easily or at all. But the interesting thing is that these ideas, facts, etc. are able to be relearned much quicker the second time, suggesting that these “forgotten” pieces of information were never gone in the first place – just waiting to be relearned!
FYI
____ : This is the theory that our brains will leave memory traces that make it easier for you to repeat a process, or relearn material years later after you have “forgotten it”.
savings in relearning principle”
Ex of ____________ :
If I first see Iron Man as a hero and I see him in public, not as Robert Downey Jr but as Iron Man, Im still going to think he’s a hero just because he plays Iron Man.
( it is easier to remember the cognition we first made with this person than the one we have later)
“savings in relearning principle”
____ is the psychological equivalent of establishing a tone, emotional setting, suggestive theme, etc. before engaging in an action in order to influence another’s behavior
Trait Priming Effects
Give an example of Trait Priming Effects:
a) you believe that you are not able to do many things right or that you will fail, you are “priming” yourself for to accept failure from the start or even behave in a way that matches your primed “failure” mentality…
b) If someone tells you that “You are going to do great!” or “You’re really good at that!” They are priming you to have a positive impression of yourself or act in a way that supports “successful” behavior
on the other hand, priming does not always work… If ____ is too obvious (i.e. a shirt that says “The Best” on the front), the opposite effect can occur – that people think negatively of you given your attempts to “prime” them with your clothing, language, et
(If you wear a shirt that says “The Best” people will think the opposite)
priming
____ ___ how you think about others and how they think about you comes from the idea of
Social cognition
______ _____ the idea that emotions are the primary response that then influence our cognition.
Zajonc’s Theory (1980)
____ ___ also argued that an individuals affective (mood) responses rely on perceptual features– which he termed “preferenda” different from those that we use to categorize objects– discriminenda”
Zajonc’s Theory (1980)
____ unspecific or unsophisticated object features that jointly activate our perceptual and emotional states (internally)
ex: we can remember the feeling we had leaving a movie long after we forgot what the movie was all about.
preferenda
_____ these are discrete or specific details about a person, place, or thing that elicit categorization or identification (conscious processing of the meaning behind the person, place, or object that comes from the primary emotional processing)
ex: in a split second, you hear a screeching sound, which elicits thinking of vehicles that match this (car, motorcycle, etc.)
Discriminenda
some criticism of this theory ___ ___ is that cognition could explain a person’s preference for familiar objects, people, or situations – not necessarily emotional response.
Zajonc’s Theory (1980)
This theory suggests people view their own feelings or emotions as guidance about the world, and they interpret their surrounding social environment given the intensity duration, and circumstances surrounding these emotions.
ex: relationship between the state of the weather and people’s reported life satisfaction
Affect-as-information
The theory that claims that if someone is experiencing “bad” weather (this in itself is subjective) reported less satisfaction than participants in an area with “good” weather (also subjective). However, if participants were aware of the researchers intentions, the relationship failed to show up!
-being aware of the weathers potential effect on your mood seems to be enough for you to discount this as a reason for your life satisfaction, ONLY IF YOU ARE AWARE
Affect-as-information
____ ____ ___ occurs among people who live at high latitudes (Alaska, Russia, Finland, Canada, etc.)
Seasonal Affect Disorder
This disorder occurs because there is a continuous lack of sunlight for weeks at a time in these regions on the planet, which can have a dramatic effect on the depression levels of the people that live there.
Season Affect Disorder (SAD)
T or F
People that have Season Affect Disorder (SAD) can get depression because of the lack of sunlight
True
What do people with Season Affect Disorder (SAD) do in order to stay somewhat healthy?
when there is no sunlight, they sometimes use UV lamps to copy what the sun doess– this artificial UV light or “fake sunlight” allows the body to process essential chemicals in periods of prolonged darkness
No __ can affect circadian rhythm or sleep pattern a person is used to, which can lead to too much melatonin (chemical that makes you drowsy) and lower levels of serotonin (neurochemical that makes you feel good)
sunlight
The weather/environment (or lack of sunlight) in these areas can increase depressive symptoms if you are not careful!
Season Affect Disorder (SAD)
A theory that argues that our emotional responses for attraction and fear get “confused” when we feel them. When people are scared it usually elicits the same response as attraction– sometimes rapid heartbeat, sometimes dry mouth, sweat, adrenaline– and then after the “feel good chemicals” in our body like dopamine or serotonin
misattribution of arousal
One study showed that people who crossed over an unstable bridge were more likely to see someone they met at the end of the bridge as attractive… it could be that when you are scared, you are feeling some of the same emotions when you are attracted to someone also!
This is an example for what theory?
Misattribution of arousal theory
Research found that when people were hungry, they rated individuals with larger BMO (body mass index) as more attractive– this also occurred across cultures and countries as well.
-The theory behind is that if a person if feeling “hungry” that are more attracted to a wider variety of body types. In fact, countries that don’t have enough food see bigger people as healthy/having better nutrition/more attractive.
Misattribution of arousal theory
Some emotional responses seem to be ____/____ these don’t appear to have any social connection and some mostly from sensory stimuli across people.
(these emotions are not related or an affect of another factor, we just feel them)
ex: fear of height or disgust from a bad taste
innate/instinctual
the feeling of “love” is a good example– the feeling of “love” a person feels exists for another person- this is a perfect example of how that emotional state would NOT exist without a social component.
(If there wasn’t social pressure to fall in love, we wouldn’t have the need to do it)
socially motivated
How do emotions serve to strengthen or weaken relationships with people?
Emotions influence your behavior/personality.
-If we strengthen a relationship we increase the positive interaction or social cognition recurring. However, if we weaken the relationship (through social interaction), we increase the chances of a negative social cognition occurring between human beings.
The two major methods that influence social interaction in humans:
- cognition (internal thoughts or cognitive processes)
2. Actions/Responses (external or observable behavior)
How are certain emotions uniquely “social” in nature?
Certain emotions don’t exist without other people in mind. You cannot be grateful unless it is towards another organism However you could be depressed, angry, happy all by yourself. Another emotion that is uniquely social is empathy… without another person to feel sorry for, how could it even exist in the first place?
Attempting to communicate your emotional state in a story is a common part of the social psychology behind emotion. This ____ ___ of emotion reveals that the vast majority of emotional experiences are shared with others, and usually as soon as possible after the event that elicited the emotional state.
social sharing
___ ___ is the need to share with another individual your experience that you just had, an event, a problem, etc.
Social sharing
What is this an example of?
-You might call your friend and immediately after your significant other did something wrong to you to “vent” to the other person, but really the action here is to try to communicate the emotion you felt with another person.
social sharing
_____ ___ of emotion– that the intensity of our emotional reaction depends on how personally meaningful the event is to us at the time and place. What may enrage someone else may not matter at all to another person.
ex: I cry because John Snow is dead. Ricardo doesn’t cry because he doesn’t care.
Appraisal Theory
What is this an example of?
Your friends favorite TV show character dies and they are depressed about it, but then they find out the character is really alive! you on the other hand feel nothing about either of these events (you heartless monster!)
Appraisal Theory
The emphasis on the subjective meaning to each person (about an event is the key concept in ____ ___ - this emphasizes the amount of significance (or subjective meaning) an individual person “appraises” an event to have.
appraisal theory
___ ___ assumes that a person’s emotional reaction primarily comes from how important or meaningful a stimuli is to an individual and not from the object itself.
appraisal theory
___ __ ___: emotions arise in response to EVENTS that are important to the individuals goals, motives, or concerns.
Law of concern
_________ is the idea is that emotion occur because a situation or EVENT occurs that is “motivationally relevant” we evaluate how an event or situation personally affects our lives, values, or goals. The argument is that the emotion you experience after an event is one that is consistent or inconsistent with these values or goals.
Law of Concern
Emotions arise in response to the meaning structures of given SITUATIONS; different emotions arise in response to different meaning structures.
This argues that different people experience different EMOTIONS in relation to the same SITUATION- that these differences between people come from the meaning that each person attaches to the situation.
Law of situational meaning (Fridga, 1988)
what law is this?
Ex:Loss makes us grieve, gains make us happy and scary things make us fearful
ex: someone dies.
Law of Situational Meaning
\_\_\_\_\_\_ claims that we feel because we care about something, when we have some interest in what happens, whether it’s to an object, ourselves, or another person. Emotions arise from these particular goals, motivations or concerns. When we are unconcerned we don’t feel anything. does this emotion help me reach my goal? ex: you find out you're going to fail a class, you're going to feel much more tense emotion about failing that class then if you fail some other class you can take again. (YOUR EMOTION IS NOT MATCHING YOUR GOAL) goal is disruptive.
Law of Concern
defined as the degree of correspondence between what people consciously seek to attain and what they nonconsciously would like to do
ex: your car gets towed. your car you need it to go out work/school. is it relevant to you? yes, you can feel anger if your event is congruent with your motivation. its going to interfere with what you want to do. If someone else is responsible for you car, it can intensify the anger if other person is at fault.
Motivational Congruence
Motivational Congruence has two parts into it. It has the _____ motives and ____ motives. Whats the difference between them?
Implicit- are UNCONSCIOUS needs/goals, preferences that evolve gradually through learning and experience.
Ex: Individuals who experience an implicit motive to form close relationships might be more inclined to direct their attention towards opportunities for social interaction.
- Explicit-are conscious goals. Explicit goals affect conscious attitudes, choices, and decisions, but do not energize individuals.
- individuals do not experience inherent pleasure and reward when they pursue explicit goals. Pleasure and reward is derived only from reaching these goals.
ex: finishing an assigned task at work
Responsibility or relevant- I crashed my car. It was at fault. I’m such a bad driver. I shouldn’t have crashed. Im just angry.
-Im just angry, it is a different emotion as if I was really really angry and at someone else.
Is the event relevant to you? yes, it affect you
Is it incongruent with your motivations?
yes, can’t go to school or work now
relevant- yes
feeling: I’m just angry, maybe angry at myself for being a bad driver
different scenario details have different emotions
Responsibility or relevant: It wasn’t my fault that I crashed the car. I’m really furious because it was the other persons fault.
Is the event relevant to you? yes, it affect you
Is it incongruent with your motivations?
yes, can’t go to school or work now
relevant- yes
Emotion: I’m angry because it wasn’t my fault and now it interferes with my goals
ANGRY AT ME
different scenarios, depending on details have different emotion outcomes.
___ __ ___ : depending on the relevancy, congruent, incongruent, it will dictate how the person feels about the situation.
Is the event relevant to you? yes, it affect you Is it incongruent with your motivations? yes, can't go to school or work now relevant- more angry ANGRY AT OTHER PERSON
Responsibility vs. relevant
How do facial features and body language help communicate emotional states (social cognition)?
Through our facial features and body language we can communicate how we feel, if something is safe. everyone does this, we do not have to speak the same language.
ex: disgust is usually accompanied by a “wrinkling of the nose”. this is something EVERYONE DOES. It has helped us survive and communicate.
How do disorders like Autism and Prosopagnosia affect the way in which a person is able to determine the emotional states in faces?
People with Autism or Prosopagnosia (also known as ‘face blindness’) have difficult recognizing familiar people from their face.
- often experience a lack of empathy and understanding for their difficulties.
- they are not able to recognize familiar faces, even if they see them everyday.
How does Darwin’s theory of emotions explain why certain facial features accompany specific emotions?
- Darwin argued that over the course of millions of years, as species changed and adapted to different environments, the behaviors they used to survive are highly related to emotion expression in their faces.
ex: feeling of “disgust” is usually accompanied by a “wrinkling of the nose” which is similar in organisms when they’re about to throw up.
When do emotions enhance or diminish sensory acquisition?
Enhance: feeling “fear” leads to facial features that enhance acquisition (larger eyes to see better, quicker movement of eyes, wider nostrils for taking in oxygen)
Diminish: feeling of “disgust. (more narrow nostrils to block offensive odors, tightly closed mouth to avoid unhealthy material from entering the organism.)
- how we use others to form appraisals of situation and attach emotions to these surrounding events.
- From birth until death, we literally use others as resource to help us interpret whether our surrounding are safe or not– and our society acts as the ultimate emotions resource for us to draw from!
social referencing
Fischer & Manstead (2008)’s definitions of how emotions help us function in a social group (competition vs. cooperation)
1.
2.
- Experiencing and showing emotions help form or maintain our relationships with others (getting alone)
- Experiencing and showing emotions help form or maintain position relative to others (getting ahead)
This theory breaks down emotional rather broadly into two categories -
1. emotions that promote interpersonal connection and warmth
or
2. emotions that distance and compete us against others.
social referencing
This theory ____________ refers to “people being better able to recall information when they are in the same emotional state as the one in which they were when first exposed to the information.”
-In other words, the mood you were in when you processed the material affects the type of words that you were later able to recall ( if you were feeling positive, you will remember positive words more likely)
mood state-dependent memory
what is this an example of?
If I recall one bad memory I’ll recall all the bad ones all at once
mood congruent memory
what is this an example of?
Im happy and form a memory in class, later I’m happy and I recall what I learned in class. (learn something when happy, recall it when happy)
Mood state dependent memory
This is known as ________, and points our that there is a match “between moos state at recall and the affective quality of the material being recalled”
mood congruent memory
- This model ________ : In specific situations, whether familiar or unfamiliar, people use the current emotional state that they are experiencing to make evaluations or judgements.
- ________ (another definition) : hypothesis models the interface between emotion and cognition. The model suggests that affect/mood operates as a source of information
ex: For example, if a person receives an inordinately large electric bill, they will respond differently if they have had a relaxing and stress-free day than they will if they have just been stuck in traffic for two hours.
Affect-as-information model
- Our brains tend to keep our memories in nodes, which it then connects with associated other memories. Nodes can be semantic (with straightforward meaning) or affective (with emotional meaning). Thus we may have a node for happiness, with which are associated all our happy memories.
- Nodes can also inhibit one another (a form or negative association). Thus when we are happy it is difficult to think of sad things, and vice versa
This is known as?
Associative network model of mood and memory
This emotional-cognitive model describes 4 strategies for processing social information.
What are the 4 strategies?
- Affective Infusion Model
1. Direct access.
2. Motivated processing
3. Heuristic processing
4. Substantive processing
- Direct access- We encounter someone we recall a stored evaluation or judgement from cognitive resources.
- Motivated processing- if someone experiences a person, event, thing they may process this in a way that addresses their personal goals (for ex: stay mar or stay happy) you have a personal goal
- Heuristic processing- simple rules (heuristics) are used to arrive at a judgement.
- substantive processing- more careful analysis of available information, where emotion guides a person to pay attention to what information is available. (but it is not the only motivating factor in determining judgement or evaluation)
The 4 affective infusion model
What are the two low infusion strategies? (affect has little impact)
- direct access
2. motivated processing
What are the high infusion strategies? (affects have high impact)
- heuristic processing
2. substantive processing
How are certain emotions uniquely “social” in nature?
We do not simply feel emotions at random- we are happy, angry, sad, disgusted, surprised afraid at something or mostly someone.
-Even though these emotions have a word unique to the culture they come from, other cultures may experience these too– even if there is not a word to describe it!
Cultural vs. language variations in emotions
______ : participants said they would fix by changing the behavior- If I hadn’t don’t that.
FOCUSED ON BEHAVIOR.
Guilt
_______: participants said if I wasn’t such an idiot. “I” feel shamed about ….
FOCUSED ON ITSELF
Shame
Feeling ___ is not generally concerned with the behavior or action itself; instead, feeling ____ is usually because the behavior a person might be _____ about does not fit the image they they are trying to maintain to others
embarrassed
the ___ is the part of our unconscious thought process that is impulsive and desires immediate gratification.
Ex: Im tired. I don’t want to go to class
By Frued
id
the \_\_\_\_ is the part of ones personality that emphasizes what should be done according to society's social rules ex: I shouldn't be late for class by Freud
superego
the ___ - which is largely seen as the part of the persons thinking that balances between instant gratification and social demand, could be considered the first description given to what we call today as “the self” . by Freud
ego
_________ : you can be aware of yourself and know things about yourselves, which essentially means that you are able to turn your own consciousness back on yourself instead of just others.
ex: you may try to evaluate yourself after taking a “personality quiz” and actively monitor your behavior. This process involves not only being aware of your own personal behavior, which you don’t actively see it as other do, AND actively seeking to obtain and monitor about yourself.
reflective consciousness (or self-awareness)
the self is formed by social interactions and relations with other people. A persons “self” can be weakened or strengthen existing relationships, as well compete or cooperate with other in a social system. this is known as __________
ex: If you identify your “self” as an artist or a musician, you generally share this part of your “self” with others in order for you to find your place in the social group that you live in. (you learn about the group and share interests)
Interpersonal relations
Any decision you choose to exercise is an attempt to reach your goals (whether this be obtaining a certain drug or loosing a certain amount of weight or getting a certain grade on test) these goals (and the decision that you make to meet these goals) are largely based on defining and building
Choices And Control
The _____ is the process by which a person can focus their attention towards themselves, self-knowledge is the understanding about one “self” a person acquires by using this process over time.
Ex: put people infant of mirror showed a video of themselves to them
self-awareness
How does self-awareness affect behavior?
We tend to evaluate ourself in comparison to a standard.
- increased awareness of inner states (both physical and psychological)
- higher accuracy in prediction their own behavior at a later time
- participants reported more intense emotional reactions
- participants were better able to regulate control over decisions in the future.
We evaluate ourselves in comparison to a _____. A ____ are ideas about how things might or ought to be: ideals, goals, expectation (held by self or others), norms, laws, averages, past or present levels, and more.
standard
researchers noticed more socially desirable behavior comes from increased ______.
self-awareness
researches found that when people behave contrary to their beliefs about themselves, they tend to avoid engaging in ______. (avoiding mirror, cameras, other people, etc)
self-awareness
Hull (1981) theorized that individuals who use _____ do so to forget their trouble or to reduce social anxiety (both of which come from negative self-awareness, which ___ subsequently removes for a short time)
-____ does not actually increase irresponsible behavior, but instead “quiets” a person’s evaluation on their own behavior via self-awareness due to behavior against social standards.
alcohol
_____ may heighten self-awareness precisely when that self-awareness is negative. Their sensitivity regarding themselves can cause them to get “stuck” in repeating feedback of negative self-awareness
depression
others psychological disorders where ____ is a common factor:
- Eating Disorder (Anorexia, Bulimia)
- Self harm behavior (cutting)
- Narcissistic Personality Disorder
self-awareness
____ : there is rarely ever a single, functionally comprehensive representation within cognition that a person is able to use to encompass their “self”.
Ex: Can you just say you are “Male” or “Female” always? How about your ethnicity ? Do these simplified concepts entirely define your awareness about you “self”?
self-concept
_____ : people tend to have numerous ideas about themselves and how they fit into a complex society.
(think of _____ as a frequently changing set of ideas about yourself depending on your current experience in a social world)
Self-concept
____ is a more generalized understanding of your “self” that you are able to know regardless of the situation
ex: At the moment, my current self-concept is that class is understanding the material, or I am clumsy, so I need to watch my feet wherever I go.
self-knowledge
_____ refers to each specific idea or piece of information that we form about ourselves to make up our self-concept. This is beneficial because a person can either have a clear individual idea about themselves ( I know I am physically fit) or unformed individual idea about themselves (physically fit or unfit)
self-schema
(people associate certain traits with the person to help them remember them better)
Spontaneous Trait Inference
(different environments and social situations) can activate opposing self-schemas and produces different versions of the self depending on where one might be.
For ex: You might pay better attention, be more organized, and participate in one class, but fall asleep, forget assignments, and be unmotivated in another class. These two conflicting ideas about yourself still refer to your own self-schemas, but there are two very different versions of you depending on where you are, who you interact with, etc.
Contextual differences
People’s ____ can be manipulated if you ask them to recall instances of one self-awareness over another
For ex: you can get a person to think of themselves as “outgoing” or a “loner” by asking them to specifically recalling memories of one or the other. Having participants focus on these aspect of their own self-awareness influences their behavior so that they act in conjunction with these parts of their self-awareness
self-concept
this theory argues that people learn about themselves by observing their own behaviors and making inferences about these behaviors. This is the same way that people learn about others – except here they are learning about themselves.
Self-Perception theory
materially rewarding someone for performing an activity turns the activity into work
ex: kids who loved drawing were rewarded at the end of the drawing. After too much rewarding kids lost interest. They didn’t want to do it anymore. This is knows as __________
overjustification effect
This suggests that people tend to perform an activity either for materially rewarded work ______ or recreational purposes _____
(external motivation)
intrinsic motivation
When children who ENJOYED drawing were rewarded for drawing, they didn’t want to do it anymore, they lost interest. this is known as ______
overjustification effect or dollars over desire
There seem to be three main motives that influence a person to develop self-knowledge:
1.
2.
3.
1) Desire to learn the truth about the self, whatever that happens to be for the person
2) Self-enhancement or the preference for favorable information about the self. This is the idea that people like to hear good things about themselves and avoid being criticized as much as possible.
3) Consistency - people seek to confirm whatever they already believe about themselves (Swann, 1987) even if that information is sometimes not socially acceptable.
a state of dilemma a person might encounter when they believe an idea about themselves but are presented with information that contradicts that idea about themselves.
cognitive dissonance
wishful thinking, by which a person manages to end up believing what he or she wants to believe without the most rigorous justifications
self-deception
The idea of ____ is ironic since the person who is doing the deceiving is the same person that is getting deceived.
self-deception
Stanley Milgram experiments- Experiments taught the “teacher”. Teacher (part of the experiment) shocked the other person (65% of the time) to death.
This is an example of ____
self-deception
people assign more responsibility to external causes for failures than for successes. (People will blame others for their failures.)
self-servicing bias
Bad: Reading 10 chapters the night before the exam
Good: want to do 10 push ups. Tell yourself you’re doing 50 so when you get to 10 it’s not that much.
Self-servicing bias
overall effective assessment that we form about yourself. Your emotional judgement about yourself and how you fit into society.
self-esteem
- Bachman & O’Malley (1977) - A strong relationship between academic performance and self-esteem, but specifically higher grades is related to higher self-esteem (vice versa)
- Forsyth et al. (2007) – attempts to boost self-esteem in students had the opposite effect on their academic performance
- Donnellan et al. (2005) – people with low self-esteem do not appear to be significantly more aggressive (even across cultures)
Some interesting (but contradictory) finds include
______ is defined as feeling good about one’s “self” in general can help a person continue to survive, succeed, compete, etc. in the face of failure.
Motivation
Generally the neurochemicals dopamine and serotonin are associated with “good feelings” and higher self-esteem might regulate a more controlled, stable release of these feel good chemicals than those with lower self-esteem
Ex: drugs. When drugs are out of your system, dopamine and serotonin are gone).
Feeling Good
____ Is a condition characterized by persistent, sometimes delusional ideas about self esteem ( a person might have much higher evaluation of their abilities, characteristics, appearance,
Narcissism/ Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Excessive reference to others for self-definition and self- esteem regulation; exaggerated self- appraisal may be inflated or deflated, or vacillate between extremes; emotional regulation mirrors fluctuations in self-esteem. Constantly want approval from other people. “You did good” looking at other people to back up your ideas.
This is known as
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD
_____ : We behave so that other people can see how we see ourselves on the inside.
Self - Presentation
For example: You might feel like you are charitable and help people who are in need. However, you may never give someone who is homeless any money, which is an action that contradicts your belief about yourself. You then may justify your actions later by thinking “I don’t want to give them money, because they will just use that money to buy drugs anyway…” This attitude change now better matches your actions!
This is an example of _____
Self-Presenation
a dual process theory of how partners in a relationship affect each other’s self-esteem and self-evaluation. This is known as….
Self-evaluation maintenance theory (SEM)
if a person’s partner does something that receives positive reaction from others, these good works can also strengthen the social standing of the other person and the relationship between partners (vice versa) (ex: does something good for the community, it makes you look good). This is known as .. ..
Reflection
depending on a partner’s success or positive social reaction from others, you may evaluate yourself as worse by comparison, which could weaken your relationship (vise versa). (ex: women makes more money than the guy, he might feel bad)
Comparison
five factor model (or the “Big Five” personality model .
-You can combine these factors with each other
- Openness to experience
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism- high/ low/ medium
- Agreeableness
____ is widely shared across multiple personality models. Generally measuring this trait involves capturing a person’ assertiveness, confidence, sometimes spontaneity, or energy specifically in a social environment.
Extraversion
_____ individuals tend to form or strengthen NEW social interactions quickly.
_______ tend to have firmer handshakes, straighter posture, or express emotional states more openly
______ tend to be less cooperative than introverts when working towards sharing resources
Extraverted
_____ Measuring this trait involves capturing the extent to which a person experiences anxiety, worry, and general distress about conflicts
Neuroticism
_____ is found fairly commonly across different social psychologists’ definitions of basic personality traits. Measuring this trait involves capturing the extent to which a person is concerned with strengthening and maintaining the social relationships around them.
Agreeableness
____ (selfless person that tries to be the well being of other people better)
Conscientiousness
____ refers to how willing a person is to try new things, how flexible, creative, or imaginative a person is with regards to familiar and unfamiliar social interactions.
Openness
______ are biological systems that are formed in a person at a young age to respond to social interactions – these systems are simply responses to sound, touch, taste, etc. (sensory perceptions) that develop responsive behaviors… which THEN form the basis of personality traits.
Ex: very gullible during your youth
temperament
Approaching behavior (towards pleasurable things) comes from what supporters of the biological model call the ________. (through sight, smell, touch, etc. it directs you towards what you are interested . Display behaviors to approach those interests)
behavioral approach system (BAS)
___ short term habits during youth
___ long term habits throughout life
Temperament
Trait
_____ affects a person’s behavior – specifically in the area of test taking!
confidence
_____ : Some define it as subjective judgments or general evaluations judgements of targets (people,places,things,events,etc)
Definition of attitude
the positive or negative social connotation (or tone) that influences a person’s perspective (social cognition) with the people,places and things around them
Valance
_____the level or magnitude at which the positive or negative tone influences social functioning in the specific environment. (ex: at war, it may help me survive because I am very negative against the other team)
extremity
_____ : Attitudes are stored as a two node semantic network where the subjective, abstract representation of the object (node #11) is linked with the global evaluation of the object given available knowledge (node #2)
Object-evaluation association
How does memory affect knowledge structures? How do knowledge structures affect attitudes?
When you remember something it will have a set of generalized knowledge structures or attitudes about the world. When you have this knowledge structures, you will come up with an attitude.
______ refers to the idea that an individual can have two different attitudes about something—both an implicit attitude and an explicit attitude. The implicit attitude refers to an intuitive response or gut reaction, whereas the explicit attitude refers to a more deliberate, thought-out response.
Ex: The grinch tried to murder the society for many years and at the end he was a good guy. Conflicting attitude about whether he is mean or nice. Mean won.
Dual Attitude model
______having an attitude about your attitude. Argues that a person’s perception of an attitude that they have developed is incorporated into the attitude itself.
Meta-Cognitive Model
People seem to maintain consistent attitude toward related people, places, or objects. I don’t dislike something but I don’t like it either.
Ex: I don’t like cats because I’m allergic but that’s just one attitude about one cat
this is known as ______
Attitude Systems Involving Multiple Objects
______ refers to how easily a person can form a judgement or evaluation of a person, place, or thing given the available cognitive information.
Attitude Accessibility
Shared responses/behaviors between organisms is what we consider ___ ___
social interaction
These kinds of response actions______ _____ often confirm or deny our own thoughts about others _____ ____
(social interaction)
social cognition
ctions that increase the chances of a negative social interaction
or social cognition occurring between human beings. Known as _____
weakening social interactions
actions that increase the chances of a positive social interaction or social cognition occurring between human beings Known as ____ _____
positive social interactions
