Exam 2 Flashcards
Social relationships help organisms ____. By cooperating with another organism, two or more living things are usually able to do more (when working together) than one of those organisms on its own.
survive.
Engaging in ____ ___ functions to strengthen social relationships with the organisms around you – this involves helping, sharing, empathizing, and cooperating with other social group members on a widespread or individual level
prosocial behavior
___ even display behaviors of reconciliation with individuals they experienced conflict with, sometimes comforting individuals who were the victims of aggression as well
Primates
The theory of ___ ___ attempts to explain how the amount of prosocial behavior a human being engages in is a function of how many children exist within a person’s genetic family, not just their children alone
kin altruism
The amount of time that individuals spent under direct care with parents ____ ____
(perinatal relationship)
The amount of time and interaction spent with similar individuals ____ ___
(sibling co-residence)
____ _____ is the idea that if a person acts to benefit another person, that recipient will also react to benefit the original helper in a similar way.
ex: when a person gives you a gift that you were not expecting – you are certainly delighted with the gift, but sometimes feel “guilty” if you do not give anything of equal value back.
Direct Reciprocity
A very interesting social experiment involving ____ ___ is the prisoner’s dilemma (Rapoport & Chammah, 1965). Two participants are told they have both committed a crime. Individually, they are presented with a choice to either cooperate with their partner or to betray their partner in “crime”. However, neither partner knows what the other partner’s decision will be…
Direct reciprocity
When doing this experiment over multiple trials, researchers found something interesting: partners began to make choices based on their partners’ previous behavior. So if partner #1 has blamed partner #2 multiple times, partner #2 will start to blame partner #1 more often to reap the most reward.
If partner #1 has cooperated with partner #2 multiple times, partner #2 is more likely to cooperate with partner #1 in future decisions.
This approach has been labeled the ______ approach in this experimental set-up…
“tit-for-tat”
The ____ approach results in a sequence of actions that seemingly mimics the most functional series of reciprocity for a social interaction:
tit-for-tat
____ ____ is any action intended to help others.
Prosocial behavior
____ ____ is when an individual or a social group acquire a good reputation for providing help to others, which in turn leads other individuals to help the benefactor(s) .
This kind of ____ ____ between individuals / people (who have never met before) is curious, since it demonstrates how something completely arbitrary like “reputation” (a social construct) can foster cooperative social interactions even before individuals / social groups meet
Indirect reciprocity ;
indirect interaction
In one experiment, researchers found that male participants donated more of their study compensation to charity when a female observer was present than when a male observer (or no observer) was present. In this case, the researchers proposed that this generosity might be designed to advertise a prosocial quality like empathy or generosity to potential mates without explicitly stating these qualities to others.
This is an example of _____ ____
signaling theory
In _____ ____ people may act in a prosocial way that is more in the interest of promoting an image or idea about themselves in order to get the attention of the people around them (a sort of indirect approach to communicating intentions for prosocial behavior).
signaling theory
_____ ____ _____ (theory of group selection) , This idea is very statistical in nature, stating that within any social group, you will likely see competitive/selfish individuals looking out for themselves. However, in a broader context, social groups that are more altruistic (engaging in prosocial behavior more often) are likely to be more common (due to the added benefits to survival over time). In the same light, groups with lower levels of prosocial behavior will become less common.
Multilevel Selection Theory
____ ____ ____ This idea assumes that altruistic individuals are prosocial in nature and will congregate with other altruistic individuals … eventually “outcompeting” non-altruistic individuals.
multilevel selection theory
____ are written / unwritten, spoken / unspoken, or shared rules in a social group for appropriate behavior. People internalize these rules through repetition, reward, and punishment – direct punishment, direct reinforcement, or social learning
Norms
____ seems to be an active social norm in most human cultures – a gift receives a gift back, a punch to the face receive a punch to the face back.
reciprocity
____ this standard practice is built into most societal laws in human society and advises against unequal treatment towards people.
fairness
The researchers trained some monkeys to exchange tokens for food (either cucumbers or grapes). When the monkeys trained to get cucumbers for tokens were able to see the monkeys trained to get grapes, they either refused to continue trading the tokens or rejected the cucumber pieces when they got them.
This is an example of _____
fairness
____ ____, states that people are motivated to preserve a state in which the relationship between an outcome and an effort is equal for all individuals in a social group or relationship.
Equity Theory
Playing golf allows for “handicaps” for better players to make the game balanced for less experienced players. Individuals who make more money per year have higher tax rates than those who make less money per year. Overtime pay compared with normal pay for working more than 8 hours.
This are examples of what theory?
Equity Theory
____ ___ shows that people are motivated to engage in prosocial behavior towards partners or social acquaintances when they encounter an inequality in some area of the relationship (resources, attention, social interaction)
Equity theory
Some theorists argue that prosocial behavior is displayed by people mainly for ____ or _____ ____ reasons
egotistical or self-serving
People are motivated to engage in ___ ____ to receive material reward, positive social interaction, or self-administered rewards
People are motivated to engage in ____ ___ if it avoids punishment by taking away materials, positive social interactions, or self-administered rewards
People are motivated to engage in ____ ____ if it will reduce potentially aversive arousal (guilt) or increase potentially positive arousal (gratitude, respect) in the future.
prosocial behavior
___ ___ ___ ___ states that people help others (or engage in generally prosocial behavior) to reduce their own distress – however, this reduction in distress occurs because the person experiences a positive emotion from the prosocial behavior.
Negative State Relief Model
Research on the matter found that people who had harmed another person or witnessed someone being harmed reported experiencing negative moods – these people then engaged in more prosocial behavior than people in a control group who had not harmed others (or had seen others harmed).
This is an example of ___ ___ ___ ___
Negative State Relief Model
_________ developed this model to explain the motivations that lead people to respond with prosocial behavior during emergency situations.
Arousal-Cost Reward Model
________ is when a person responds with action to help others in an emergency situation (not if it is their job), it is likely because they are motivated to eliminate the negative emotional state from witnessing physical or emotional distress of others in need.
Arousal-Cost Reward Model
You see someone being beat up by a bunch of people. Some theories would argue that you are not likely to engage in prosocial behavior to stop the activity from happening because the energy required to do so would outweigh the benefit from a prosocial interaction you would experience. However, when the situation is safe, you might help the other person … but not because you want them to feel better, because you are still experiencing a negative mood state from witnessing the attack and you want to do something to try to lessen this emotional state.
This is an example of ?
Arousal-Cost Reward Model
*According to this theory, the following circumstances would best predict prosocial behavior in an emergency situation…
The more negative emotional reactions that a person experiences during an emergency situation (Dovidio, 1984; Gaertner & Dovidio, 1977).
When the victim(s) share similar qualities, characteristics, or group identities with the helper
When the cost of helping or engaging in prosocial behavior is low, compared to the self-serving reward from helping others.
Arousal-Cost Reward Model
_________ hypothesis for how helping behavior is reliably elicited by empathy for other people in need. Batson et al. (2009) describes empathy as “an other-oriented emotional response elicited by and congruent with the perceived welfare of someone else¨ (p. 277).
The Empathy- Altruism Hypothesis
The Shock Experiment:
After the trial, the researchers asked each participant if were willing to trade places with the person being shocked to help her avoid the discomfort.
When participants were told that only a few shocks were given to the actor, they were more likely to NOT trade places to ease the discomfort. However, when participants were told that more shocks were given, over half of them agreed to trade places with the person getting shocked.
In support of the various ___ models, when participants were involved in witnessing more suffering and discomfort in another individual, they were more likely to empathize with the person (even take their place). However, when participants only witnessed a minor amount of discomfort, they were less willing to take the sufferer’s place.
This experiment is an example of
The Empathy Altruism Hypothesis
A pretty cool social experiment found that time pressure had an effect on whether a person helped in an emergency situation. ____ & ___ ( ) split students (in a religious school) into groups where they were either told to get across campus in a little bit of time or with more than enough time. Students were told they would be giving a talk about the Good Samaritan parable (a story in the Christian Bible about a man who stopped to help a foreigner who was in desperate need of aid)
On their way to the presentation, the researchers arranged so that the participants would pass by an actor who looked unwell. Remarkably, 80% of students who were not rushed stopped to help, but only 10% stopped to help when they were pressured for time.
Darley and Batson (1973)
_______ it is the tendency for people to give others less assistance in an emergency as the number of other bystanders increases.
bystander effect
______ This effect is most associated with the murder of Kitty Genovese in a crowded apartment building in New York. Despite the fact that neighbors reported seeing or hearing the attack occurring, the general consensus is that hardly any assistance was given, given that a woman was being brutally attacked and murdered all over a 30 minute span of time
bystander effect
- People must notice that something occurred where a person needs help
- After comprehending that a situation requires a person’s assistance, bystanders must then decide to take action.
- Once a person decides to take action, they need to believe that their actions will be sufficient to provide some help or assistance to the person in need.
factors that will increase or decrease the likelihood of a person responding to an emergency situation.
_____ is any behavior that is intended to harm another person who does not want to be harmed.
Agression
Though the term “_____” can be used in business or sports in a positive light to describe motivation or effort, in social psychology it is generally viewed as a direct, explicit, and negative social interaction
aggression
It is also important to note that _____ is observable
aggression
____ is aggression that has extreme physical harm, such as injury or death, as its goal.”
Violence
The term “____” can be used in describing weather or the effects of some disease on the body, these reactions are not socially relevant –
violence
____ ____ involves harming someone else’s body or property with your body or with another object (i.e. hitting, kicking, stabbing, shooting).
Physical aggression
_____ ____ is the use of words with the intention of those words harming another (e.g., yelling, screaming, swearing, name callin
• Verbal aggression
_____ ____ is the intention of harming another person’s social relationships, or status/inclusion within a group (cyber bullying, spreading rumors, lying)
Relational aggression
____ ____ : the person doing the harming is physically present and engaged in harmful behavior directed at person being harmed
For example: ____ physical ____ might be pushing someone to the ground, direct verbal aggression might be screaming in someone’s face, etc.
Direct agression
___ ___ : the person doing the harming does NOT have to be physically present, but is still engaged in harmful behavior directed at the person being harmed
For example: ____ physical ____ might be damaging a person’s car when they are not there, indirect relational aggression might be posting embarrassing pictures online about a person, etc.
Indirect Agression
_____ ____ : aggression for one person is directed at another person. The victim of this type of aggression is usually not the cause of the aggressive behavior to begin with, but happens to be at the wrong place, at the wrong time.
For example: You have a negative interaction with one of your friends, boss, professor, etc. and then your parents call you to ask you a question about something. Because you are feeling aggression towards another person, but have not acted on these feelings, you might be verbally aggressive to your parents on the phone, despite the fact that they didn’t do anything wrong to you.
Displaced aggression
