Exam 3 Flashcards
motivation
a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal
instinct
a fixed pattern of behavior that is not acquired by learning, likely rooted in genes
drive
an aroused state related to a physical need
drive-reduction theory
humans are motivated to reduce their drives for hunger, thirst, etc.
restores homeostasis
need > drive > drive-reduction
hierarchy of needs/motives
Maslow, humans strive to satisfy basic needs before moving up on hierarchy
physiology of hunger
complex relationship between stomach, hormones, brain
feeling hungry causes stomach contractions
Which area of the limbic system controls hunger?
hypothalamus
signals appetite-stimulating hormones and appetite-suppressing hormones after eating
glucose receptors in digestive system send signals to hypothalamus
hypothalamic influences on hunger
lateral hypothalamus stimulation causes a desire to eat
ventromedial hypothalamus causes desire to stop eating
removal has consequences
hormonal influences on hunger
insulin from pancreas controls blood glucose
ghrelin from stomach promotes hunger
orexin from hypothalamus promotes hunger
leptin from fat cells decreases hunger
PPY from digestive tract decreases hunger
weight regulation
when weight changes, body adjusts hunger and energy use as well as basal metabolic rate
most mammals have a stable set weight to which they return
basal metabolic rate
rate of energy expenditure for maintaining body functions at rest
other influences on hunger
genetics influences hunger and metabolic rate
cultural influence of climate and spicy food
social influences of social facilitation, unit bias, buffet effect
social facilitation
the presence of others often accentuates typical eating habits
unit bias
we may only eat one serving of foo but eat more if serving size is larger
buffet effect
eat more if more options are available
obesity
an amount of body fat that increases the risk of health problems to the point that weight loss is a health priority
linked to many diseases
obesity and weight control
adaptive for humans to eat energy-rich food but now that is junk food
adaptive to slow down fat burning when food is scarce but can slow down weight loss
social psychology of obesity
weight discrimination is very real
obese people more likely to be depressed or isolated
sex hormones
testosteron and estrogen
direct physical development of sex characteristics, activate sexual behavior
shift across lifespan
sexual response cycle
excitement: getting ready, genitals fill with blood, breathing/pulse speed up
plateau: excitement reaches peak
orgasm: contractions, sexual release
resolution: genitals released from blood, refractory period
hormones and sexual motivation
women show rise in estrogen and testosterone during ovulation
increases sexual desire in women and men around them
paraphilias
sexual desire directed in unusual ways
experience arousal from fantasies involving non-humans/objects, suffering of others, or non-genitals
adolescent sexual activity
age of first intercourse varies over cultures/time
dependent on social environment, not just basic drives
sexual orientation
one’s preferences as an object of their sexual attraction
not related to parenting or childhood abuse
could be genetic or hormonal changes in womb
erotic plasticity
women’s sexual orientation tends to be less strongly felt and possibly more changing and fluid
biological differences in sexual preferences
gay men have smaller hypothalamic cell cluster, larger commissure, react similarly to women to hormones
identical twins share sexual preferences more than fraternal
manipulated in fruit flies
emotion
full body/mind/behavior response to a situation
appraisal
acknowledgement and labelling of an event
determines emotional response according to Schacter-Singer two-factor theory
spillover effect
spillover arousal from one event to the next, influencing a response
emotions without awareness
some reactions develop in a “low road” through the brain, skipping conscious thought and cognition
high road for emotions
sensory receptors > cortex processes/labels info > limbic system (emotion)
low road for emotions
sensory receptors > limbic system
knee-jerk reaction
detecting emotion in others
people can detect nonverbal cues, but poor at detecting deceiving expressions
women are better at reading and expressing emotion (except anger)
differneces in gender and nonverbal behavior
women better at reading emotion and expressing it with faces
people attribute female emotionality to disposition and male emotionality to circumstance
universal emotions
there are some universal primary emotions
elaborated on by culture in some ways
behavioral feedback effect
behavior influences our own and other’s thoughts, feelings, and actions
lie detection
measure emotion-linked changes in breathing, cardiovascular activity, and perspiration
compare responses to control responses, designed to evoke mild arousal
not always reliable
polygraph
2 dimensions of emotion
low to high arousal
unpleasant to pleasant
both are continuous
pros and cons of anger
+: flash of anger gives us energy and initiative to fight
-: persistent anger is unhealthy for the body
decreasing anger
waiting, distraction, distancing oneself, exercise, verbal expression/releasing anger, catharsis
happiness
high arousal emotion like anger
mood and a cognitive filter
positive psych
feel-good, do-good
feel good do good phenomenon
when in a good mood, we do more for others
doing good also feels good
Can money buy happiness?
When lifting people out of extreme poverty
adaptation-level phenomenon
we adjust our neutral levels relative to our own experience
we adjust highs and lows relative to our neutral level
if current condition changes we come to consider this level our new normal
relative depravation
the perception that you are worse off than those you compare yourself to
more likely to envy peers than beggars or billionaires
correlates of happiness
high self-esteem in individualistic countries
optimistic, outgoing, agreeable
close friendships or satisfying marriage
work and leisure that engage their skills
active religious faith
sleep well and exercise
not correlated with happiness
age, gender, parenthood, physical attractiveness
attribution
explanation for someone’s (including own) behavior
internal (dispositional) and external (situational)
fundamental attribution error
we tend to overemphasize internal influences and fail to account for situational (external) influences when making attributions
actor-observer bias
we tend to generate external attributions for our own behavior and internal attributions for others’
self-serving bias
we don’t always make external attributions for our own behaviors
positive behavior = internal
negative = external
cultural differences in attribution
collectivist cultures
behavior of others is attributed more to situation
credit for success is given more to others
blame for failures is taken on oneself
attitude
evaluation about an attitude object
person, idea, group, project, etc.
Do attitudes predict behavior?
not always
attitudes change, norms influence our behavior, and people are bad at introspection
When do attitudes predict actions?
- external influences are minimal
- attitude is stable
- attitude is easily recalled
persuasion
peripheral route: appealing to fears, desires, associations
central route: influencing attitudes with evidence and logic, need cognition and motivation
self-perception theory
people determine their attitudes and preferences by interpreting the meaning of their own behavior
foot in the door
small compliance will lead to a large compliance
tendency to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one
role playing and attitudes
roles can become reality e.g. Stanford prison experiment
cognitive dissonance
feeling of discomfort when our actions are not in harmony with our attitudes
actions affect attitudes
cognitive dissonance theory
we tend to resolve cognitive dissonance by changing our attitudes to fit our actions
conformity
a change in behavior to fit a real or imagined group standard
social norms
the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
informational social influence
we conform because we are unsure of how to behave or we believe others have useful info about how to behave
increased by ambiguous situations, incompetence, looking up to others, crisis situations
use behaviors of others as a guide
normative social influence
we conform because we know how to behave but we want to fit in
want to be liked or accepted by others
increased by group size, unanimous, culture, admired group, not previously committed to response, clear social roles/expectations
factors increasing obedience
legitimate authority, prestigious institution, proximity to authority
when victim is in another room
no role model for defiance
social facilitation and impairment
presence of others increases arousal, which intensifies performance
easy/expert = perform better
hard/novice = perform worse
social loafing
presence of others can decrease accountability (tug of war example)
reducing social loafing
belief that individual performance is being evaluated task is meaningful believe others won't perform group is important group is small
deindividuation
increased anonymity means reduced normative behavior
we lose our identity in a group, we will do things we wouldn’t do as individuals
riots, online bullying
anonymity results in low accountability and reduced self awareness
group polarization
when people of similar views for a group together, discussion makes their views more extreme
group think
groups will often make decisions wihtout open exchange of ideas in pursuit of social harmony
prevents thinking and real assessment of options
fighting groupthink
avoid endorsing a position combine group and solitary brainstorming appoint devil's advocate seek outside advice and criticism encourage people to voice doubts
stereotype
a generalized belief about a group applied to every member of that group
prejudice
an unjustified (usually negative) attitude towards a a group and its members
discrimination
unjustified behavior selectively applied to members of a group
components of prejudice
beliefs/stereotypes
emotions (hostility, fear)
predisposition to act/discriminate
aversive racism
negative racial attitudes more likely to be manifested in subtle ways than overt acts of discrimination
implicit prejudice
unconscious patronization
reflexive body response to faces of other races
gender prejudice
people may prefer a feminine face
female abortion/infanticide due to preference for male babies
blaming women for adultery
different attitude towards assertiveness/ambition for men and women
outgroup prejudice
quickly categorizing strangers “with or against” me
can occur in randomly assigned groups
social inequality
when some groups have fewer resources and opportunities than others
can result from and promote prejudice
belief in a just world
believing that justice generally prevails, that people get the benefits and punishments they deserve
leads to blaming the victim: poor/outcasts don’t deserve better
scapegoat theory
it helps to blame someone, causes prejudice especially in fear or stress inducing scenarios
emotional cause of prejudice
other-race effect
we tend to see uniformity in the appearance of other groups, and may assume other similarities such as traits
help form stereotypes
cognitive cause of prejudice
availability heuristic
vivid examples (e.g. of bad people of a race) seem more frequent terrorists
hindsight bias
blames victims for misfortunes, related to belief in just world
comfirmation bias
we are not likely to look for counterexamples to our stereotypes
aggression
behavior with the intent of harming another
genetic, neural, and biochemical influences
genetic influences of aggression
can be selectively bred in animals
identical twins are similar
males more prone to aggression than females
neural influences of aggression
stimulation of amygdala?
underactive frontal lobes linked to aggression and violence
biochemical influences of aggression
testosterone correlated with irritability, impulsiveness, assertiveness
criminals often have high T, low serotonin
alcohol and aggression
chemically or physiologically makes behavior more likely
disinhibited aggress behavior
violent crimes
interpreting neutral acts as provocations
frustration-aggression principle
aggression is often a response to frustration or other aversive conditions
more violence on hot years/days
reinforced aggression
bullies win control and obedience
robbers gain wealth
mere exposure effect
becoming attracted to someone can depend on proximity
face we are most familiar with is our own
physical attractiveness
men seek youth and fertility
women seek maturity, masculinity, and affluence
also: nice people, loved ones
halo effect
attractive people seen as happy, healthy, successful, socially skilled
not happier than others
do not have higher self-esteem
similarity and attraction
we enjoy being around people with similar beliefs, intelligence, humor, etc.
making love last
equity: sharing responsibilities, sense of partnership
self-disclosure: sharing self increases intimacy
positive interactions/support: offering sympathy, concern, laughs, hugs
passionate love
state of strong attraction that people are absorbed in each other
physiological arousal, flattering appraisal, intense desire for other’s presence
companionate love
deep, caring, affectionate attachment/commitment
attachment is more than just dsire to be together
bystander effect causes
diffusion of responsibility
people in a crowd follow example of others
after a while people rationalize inaction
factors promoting helping
person appears to be in need is a woman and/or similar to us in a small town or rural area feeling guilt not in a hurry in a good mood
conflict
a perceived incompaibility in goals, ideas, and actions between people or groups
mirror image perceptions
both sides assuming the worst in the other person
self-fulfilling prophecy
social traps
when pursuing self-interest makes things worse for everyone
superordinate goals
shared goals that can only be accomplished via cooperation
can help us define new inclusive group that dissolves former subgroups
personality
our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
humanism
focusing on the conditions that support healthy personal growth
maslow’s hierarchy of needs
physiological needs safety needs belonging needs esteem needs self-actualization is last step
self-actualization
fulfilling one’s potential and self-transcendence
personality includes being self-aware, self-accepting, open, ethical, spontaneous, and loving
3 conditions that facilitate growth according to Rogers
genuineness, acceptance, empathy
self-concept
core of our personality in humanism
our sense of our identity
people are happiest when self-concept matches ideal self
humanism critiques
too focused on individual insead of societal benefits
does not appreciate human capacity for evil
trait
an enduring quality that makes a person tend to act a certain way
trait theory of personality
we are made up of a collection of traits that can be identified and measured
differ from person to person
biological basis of traits
brain: extraverts seek stimulation
body: shyness related to high autonomic system reactivity
genes
personality inventory
asking which behaviors and responses a person would choose
assess traits
empirically derived test
items predictably match the qualities being tested
minnesota multiphasic personality inventory
designed to identify people with personality dififculties
T/F questionnaire
factor analysis
identifying factors that tend to cluster together
