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Physiology of Reproduction > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

How many sperm does the turkey produce compared to the boar?

A

Turkey: 9 billion /cc
Boar: 200 million/cc

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2
Q

How much sperm does the rooster produce?

A

35,000 every second

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3
Q

How long does it take the avian male to make sperm compared to the human?

A

Avian: 2 weeks
Human: 2.5 months

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4
Q

Where are the paired testes located in poultry?

A

Within the body cavity near the backbone and kidneys

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5
Q

What temperature are the testes maintained at in poultry?

A

Body temperature

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6
Q

During the poultry breeding season, how can the testis size increase?

A

300-500 fold

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7
Q

How much seminiferous tubules are there in each testicle?

A

Several miles

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8
Q

How much of the hen’s daily energy intake is used to make an egg?

A

40%

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9
Q

What percentage of the female’s weight are the eggs?

A

Between 2 and 25%

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10
Q

How many eggs are laid in a clutch before the hen incubates them?

A

Between 1 and 23

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11
Q

How many ovaries do most female birds have a maturity? Why?

A

One left ovary

Decreases weight for flight

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12
Q

What does the ovary in birds produce?

A

Egg yolk

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13
Q

What does the oviduct in birds produce?

A

Egg white and shell

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14
Q

How long does it take for the egg shell to form?

A

20 hours

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15
Q

How long does complete egg formation take?

A

25 hours

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16
Q

How often do birds lay eggs?

A

Some almost every day (chickens)

Some once every 2-8 days (megapodes)

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17
Q

What is the site of fertilization in poultry?

A

Infundibulum

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18
Q

When is the egg fertilized?

A

Within 20 minuted of release from the ovary

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19
Q

What does the magnum do in poultry?

A

Engulf the ovum in albumen (egg white)

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20
Q

What does the isthmus form in poultry?

A

Shell membranes

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21
Q

What does the shell gland do?

A

Creates the hard shell from calcium and adds the color

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22
Q

How long is sperm stored in female birds?

A

Up to 90 days

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23
Q

Where is sperm stored in female birds?

A

Sperm storage tubules by the shell gland

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24
Q

What are storage tubules? How do they work?

A

Blind ended pockets

Last sperm in is the first one out

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25
Q

By the time the egg is laid, how many cells does the embryo have?

A

Over 20,000

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26
Q

How long is the female bird “pregnant” for?

A

25 hours

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27
Q

What are the layers of albumen? (5)

A 
Outer thin
Firm
Inner thin
Chalaziferous
Chalazae
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28
Q

What are the layers of the shell? (3)

A

Cuticle
Spongy (calcareous) layer
Mammillary layer

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29
Q

What are the layers of the yolk? (5)

A 
Germinal disk
Latebra
Light yolk layer
Dark yolk layer
Yolk membrane
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30
Q

What are the layers of the membrane? (3)

A

Air cell
Outer shell membrane
Inner shell membrane

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31
Q

What are the steps to fertilization? (7)

A
  1. Mating occurs
  2. Sperm enter oviduct and are stored in sperm storage tubules
  3. Sperm travel to ovum
  4. Sperm bind to perivitelline layer
  5. Sperm digest a hole through the layer and enter via acrosome reaction
  6. Many sperm enter egg around germinal disc region
  7. Male DNA from one sperm and female DNA within yolk combine to form embryo
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32
Q

Does sperm capacitation occur in poultry?

A

No

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33
Q

What happens instead of capacitation in poultry?

A

Oviductal secretions remove carbohydrates and proteins from sperm-egg receptors to prepare sperm for acrosome reaction

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34
Q

What does sperm bind to?

A

Receptors on the perivitelline layer

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35
Q

What is chZPC?

A

A protein that is a key component in sperm binding to perivitelline layer

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36
Q

What is chZPC homologous to?

A

Mammalian zona pellucida glycoprotein ZP3

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37
Q

What is chZPC synthesized from?

A

Granulosal cells surrounding oocyte

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38
Q

What does the binding of chZPC do?

A

Initiates the acrosome reaction

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39
Q

Does one sperm or several sperm penetrate the perivitelline layer of the avian ovum?

A

Several

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40
Q

What does a fast block/vitelline block do?

A

Changes the electrical potential and prevents further sperm fusion to egg membranes

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41
Q

What is the slow block to polyspermy?

A

Zona reaction

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42
Q

What happens during the zona reaction to prevent polyspermy?

A

Enzymes cleave sperm receptors, removing sperm bound to them

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43
Q

Do the reactions/blocks occur in the chicken?

A

No

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44
Q

How long does it take for the baby bird to become fully developed and hatch?

A

21 days

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45
Q

What can unfertilized chicken and turkey eggs produce?

A

Male embryos that will hatch and reach sexual maturity

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46
Q

How many of the unfertilized eggs from a turkey develop embryos?

A

45%

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47
Q

How many of the 45% unfertilized eggs develop to sexual maturity?

A

1%

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48
Q

What 4 steps must be taken before the embryo attaches to the uterus?

A
  1. Development within the confines of the zona pellucida
  2. Hatching of the blastocyte from the zona pellucida
  3. Maternal recognition of pregnancy
  4. Formation of the extraembryonic membranes
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49
Q

What is an ootid?

A

The cell after fertilization when both pronuclei are present

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50
Q

What is an embryo?

A

An organism in the early stages of development after the pronuclei fuse

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51
Q

What is a zygote?

A

One cell with diploid chromosomes following fusion of pronuclei

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52
Q

Is a zygote an embryo?

A

Yes, but an embryo is not necessarily a zygote

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53
Q

What are cleavage divisions?

A

Series of mitotic divisions dividing the cells into 2, 4, 8, and 16 daughter cells

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54
Q

What are blastomeres?

A

The cells generated from cleavage divisions

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55
Q

What is a fetus?

A

Potential offspring that is still within the uterus, but old enough to be able to detect what species it is

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56
Q

What is a conceptus?

A

The product of conception that consists of the embryo, extraembryonic membranes, fetus, and placenta

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57
Q

What are the first 8 cells of an early embryo?

A

Totipotent

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58
Q

What is totipotent?

A

Each cell could give rise to a complete individual

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59
Q

What are identical twins from?

A

A two-celled embryo that divides independently

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60
Q

If an early embryo is cut in half and put back into a recipient, what can happen?

A

Both can develop into healthy individuals

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61
Q

What do all cleavages within the zona pellucida create?

A

More cells, but not more mass

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62
Q

What happens after each embryo gets to be about 32 cells?

A

Cells can no longer be counted individually

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63
Q

What stage of embryonic development is it when there are 32 cells?

A

Morula stage

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64
Q

What happens during the morula stage?

A

Cells on the inside of the embryo develop gap junctions that allow for communication

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65
Q

What do the outer cells develop?

A

Tight junctions

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66
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

Cell-to-cell adhesions

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67
Q

What do the tight junctions do?

A

Make the zona more permeable and fluid begins to enter the morula and form a blastocoele

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68
Q

What is a blastocoele?

A

A fluid-filled cavity

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69
Q

What happens when a distinct cavity is recognizable?

A

The embryo becomes a blastocyst

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70
Q

What are the distinct cell populations that form?

A

Inner cell mass

Trophoblast

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71
Q

What is the inner cell mass from? What does it form?

A

From the inside group of cells

Forms the body of the embryo

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72
Q

What is the trophoblast from? What does it form?

A

From outside group of cells

Forms chorion

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73
Q

As the blastocoele continue to accumulate fluid, what happens inside the zona?

A

Pressure increases

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74
Q

What do enzymes released from the trophoblast do?

A

Weaken the zona

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75
Q

What happens once the zona cracks open?

A

Blastocyst hatches

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76
Q

What is the blastocyst like in the cow and ewe on day 13?

A

3 mm in diameter

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77
Q

What is the blastocyst like in the cow and ewe on day 17?

A

250 mm in length

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78
Q

What is the blastocyst like in the cow and ewe on day 18?

A

Occupies both uterine horns

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79
Q

What is the blastocyst like in the pig on day 10?

A

2 mm spheres

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80
Q

What is the blastocyst like in the pig within 48 hours after day 10?

A

Grows to 200 mm in length

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81
Q

What is the blastocyst like in the pig on day 16?

A

1000 mm in length

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82
Q

What are the 2 groups of embryos?

A

Long preattachment period

Short preattachment period

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83
Q

Which animals have a long preattachment period for embryos?

A

Most domestic animals

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84
Q

How long is the long preattachment period within the uterus?

A

Several weeks

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85
Q

When do extraembryonic membranes form in long preattachment?

A

Before attachment

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86
Q

Which animals have a short preattachment period for embryos?

A

Primates

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87
Q

What happens during short preattachment shortly after entering the uterus?

A

Embryo implants

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88
Q

When do extraembryonic membranes form in short preattachment?

A

After attachment

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89
Q

What are the extra embryonic membranes? (4)

A

Yolk sac
Chorion
Amnion
Allantois

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90
Q

In pigs, sheep, and cows, what do blastocysts become?

A

Filamentous or threadlike

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91
Q

In horses, what do blastocysts become?

A

Remain spherical

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92
Q

What must occur in order for maternal recognition of pregnancy to happen?

A

Luteolysis must be prevented

Progesterone must be maintained

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93
Q

What is maternal recognition of pregnancy?

A

When the female recognizes she is and pregnant and sends a signal to block luteolysis

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94
Q

In the cow and ewe, what is the signal for maternal recognition of pregnancy?

A

Glycoprotein Interferon tau

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95
Q

What are interferons produced by? (4: * the one we care about)

A

Leukocytes
Fibroblasts
Lymphocytes
Trophoblastic cells*

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96
Q

When is interferon tau present in the uterus of the ewe and cow?

A

About day 13

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97
Q

Does INF-τ affect CL?

A

Not directly

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98
Q

What does INF-τ do?

A

Inhibits oxytocin receptors

Promotes protein synthesis by uterine glands

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99
Q

What are 2 major differences between sow compared to the the cow and ewe for maternal recognition of pregnancy?

A
  1. Conceptus produces estradiol that serves as the signal of pregnancy
  2. PGF2α is produced, but is rerouted into uterine lumen due to the estradiol
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100
Q

What does E2 do for maternal recognition of pregnancy in the sow?

A

Increases contractions which distributed the conceptuses around the uterine horns

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101
Q

In the sow, how many conceptuses must be present to maintain pregnancy?

A

2 in each horn

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102
Q

In maternal recognition of pregnancy for the mare, what must the conceptus do?

A

Migrate within the uterus from one horn to the other

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103
Q

How many times and when does the migration of the conceptus in the mare occur?

A

12-14 times per day

Day 12-14 of pregnancy

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104
Q

What does the migration of the conceptus in the mare do?

A

Inhibits PGF2α

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105
Q

Why is the conceptus migration necessary?

A

It does not elongate, so pregnancy recognition factors must be spread around

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106
Q

What have embryos in eutherian mammals evolved to do?

A

Attach and form a relationship with the uterus to ensure adequate nutrition and protection

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107
Q

What species does implantation occur in?

A

Rodents and humans

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108
Q

What is implantation?

A

When the embryo buries itself

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109
Q

What is the placenta?

A

A transient organ of metabolic interchange between the conceptus and the dam

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110
Q

What kind of organ is the placenta classified as? Why?

A

Endocrine organ

Produces a variety of hormones

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111
Q

What is the chorion?

A

The fetal component of the placenta

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112
Q

What is the uterine endometrium?

A

The maternal component of the placenta

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113
Q

What does the fetus initiate? How?

A

Parturition

By endocrine events that promote contractions, dilation of cervix, and expulsion of fetus and extraembryonic membranes

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114
Q

What is chorionic villus?

A

Finger-like projections on the surface of the chorion that protrude toward the uterine endometrium

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115
Q

How can placentas be classified? (2)

A

Distribution of chorionic villi

Number of tissue layers separating maternal and fetal blood

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116
Q

What are the 4 types of placentas?

A

Diffuse
Zonary
Discoid
Cotyledonary

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117
Q

What species have a diffuse placenta?

A

Pigs and horses

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118
Q

What is the diffuse placenta like in pigs?

A

Velvet-like surface with many closely spaced chorionic villi distributed over the enter surface of the chorion

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119
Q

When does attachment occur in the diffuse placenta of the pig?

A

Day 12 after ovulation

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120
Q

What is the diffuse placenta like in the mare?

A

Microscopic microzones of chorionic villi (microcotyledons)

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121
Q

What else does the mare placenta contain?

A

Endometrial cups

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122
Q

What are endometrial cups?

A

Discrete areas of both trophoblastic and endometrial origin

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123
Q

When do endometrial cups develop?

A

Between days 35 and 60 of gestation

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124
Q

When are endometrial cups sloughed off?

A

After day 60 of gestation

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125
Q

What do endometrial cups produce?

A

Equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG)

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126
Q

When does attachment occur in the diffuse placenta of the mare?

A

Day 24

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127
Q

What species have a zonary placenta?

A

Dogs and cats

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128
Q

What are the 3 regions of the zonary placenta?

A

A prominent region of exchange that forms a broad zone around chorion
A second region (paraplacenta) that consists of a highly pigmented zone containing blood clots
The transparent zone at the ends of the chorion that absorbs material from the uterine lumen

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129
Q

What species have a discoid placenta?

A

Primate and rodents

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130
Q

What is a discoid placenta?

A

One or two distinct discs that contain chorionic villi that interface with the endometrium and provide exchange for nutrients and waste

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131
Q

What animals have a cotyledonary placenta?

A

Ruminant animals

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132
Q

What is a cotyledon?

A

A placental unit of trophoblastic origin consisting of abundant blood vessels and connective tissue

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133
Q

What is the placentome?

A

The place of interface that consists of the fetal cotyledon and the maternal cotyledon

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134
Q

Where does the fetal cotyledon come from?

A

Chorion

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135
Q

Where does the maternal cotyledon come from?

A

Caruncular regions in the uterus

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136
Q

How many placentomes are in sheep? Cattle?

A

90-100

70-120

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137
Q

What does the chorion initiate in cotyledonary placentas?

A

Attachment to the caruncles of the uterus

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138
Q

Prior to the attachment to caruncles, what type of placenta is the cotyledonary placenta?

A

Diffuse

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139
Q

As gestation progresses, what happens to cotyledons?

A

The increase in diameter to increase surface area

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140
Q

If there are fewer layers in a placenta, that is the relationship like?

A

More intimate

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141
Q

What does the prefix of the word describing placental classification by layers describe?

A

Maternal side

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142
Q

What does the suffix of the word describing placental classification by layers describe?

A

Fetal side

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143
Q

What are the 4 different types placentas classified by layer?

A

Epitheliochorial
Syndesmochorial
Endotheliochorial
Hemochorial

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144
Q

How many layers are in the epitheliochorial placenta?

A

6

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145
Q

What animals have a epitheliochorial placenta?

A

Sow

Mare

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146
Q

What is the epitheliochorial placenta?

A

Least intimate type

Placenta and endometrium have an intact layer of epithelium

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147
Q

How many layers are in the syndesmochorial placenta?

A

6

148
Q

What animals have a syndesmochorial placenta?

A

Ruminants

149
Q

What is the syndesmochorial placenta?

A

Epithelium erodes and the regrows

150
Q

What is unique to the syndesmochorial placenta?

A

Binucleate giant cells

151
Q

How much of the syndesmochorial placenta is made up of binucleate giant cells?

A

20%

152
Q

What do binucleate grant cells do?

A

Invade endometrial epithelium and transfer complex molecules from fetal to maternal placenta

153
Q

What do binucleate giant cells secrete?

A

Placental lactogen

Pregnancy specific protein B

154
Q

What do binucleate cells produce?

A

Progesteron

Estrogen

155
Q

How many layers are in the endotheliochorial placenta?

A

5

156
Q

What animals have a endotheliochorial placenta?

A

Dogs and cats

157
Q

What is the endotheliochorial placenta?

A

Complete erosion of the endometrial epithelium

Maternal capillaries are directly exposed to epithelial cells of the chorion

158
Q

How many layers are in the hemochorial placenta?

A

3

159
Q

What animals have a hemochorial placenta?

A

Primates and rodents

160
Q

What is the hemochorial placenta?

A

Most intimate type

Chorionic epithelium in direct apposition to maternal pools of blood

161
Q

In a hemochorial placenta, how are nutrients and gases exchanged?

A

Directly from maternal blood

162
Q

Look at pages 296-299 and 300-301 for pictures of different placenta types

A

Look at pages 296-299 and 300-301 for pictures of different placenta types

163
Q

What does placental exchange involve?

A

Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport

164
Q

What is simple diffusion?

A

Gases and water pass from high concentration to low concentrations

165
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

Specific carrier molecules transport glucose, amino acids, etc.

166
Q

What is active transport?

A

Ion pumps for sodium and potassium

167
Q

What is the major source of energy for the fetus?

A

Glucose

168
Q

Where is a majority of the glucose for the fetus derived from?

A

Maternal circulation

169
Q

What can happen near the end of gestation due to the fetus’ needs?

A

It can drain the maternal supply

170
Q

When the maternal supply is drained, what happens? Why?

A

Ketosis

Dam begins to metabolize fat with generate ketones for energy

171
Q

What is ketosis common in?

A

Dairy cows

172
Q

What does not cross the placental barrier? (3)

A

Maternal proteins
Lipids
Large peptide hormones

173
Q

What does cross the placental barrier? (5)

A 
Smaller peptides
Vitamin and minerals at variable rates
Many toxic substances
Many drugs
Microorganisms, pathogens, and viruses
174
Q

What is teratogenic?

A

Inducing abnormal development from certain substances

175
Q

What can hormones produced by the placenta do? (4)

A

Stimulate ovarian function
Maintain pregnancy
Influence fetal growth
Stimulate mammary function

176
Q

What does eCG do?

A

Act as luteotropin and stimulates maintenance of the CL

Promotes development of supplementary CL

177
Q

When is eCG produced?

A

At time of attachment

178
Q

When does eCG perform its function?

A

Betweens days 40 and 70 of gestation

179
Q

What is human chorionic gonadotropin produced by?

A

Trophoblastic cells

180
Q

When is hCG secreted?

A

When blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida

181
Q

When can hCG be detected in urine?

A

As early as day 8-10 of pregnancy

182
Q

What does hCG bind to? What does that do?

A

LH receptors

Increases P4 production

183
Q

What does a progesterone block do?

A

Inhibits myometrial contractions

184
Q

What does P4 stimulate?

A

Secretion by endometrial glands

185
Q

In the ewe, mare, and human, is the CL necessary for all of gestation? Why?

A

No

Placenta takes over production of P4

186
Q

In the sow and rabbit, is the CL necessary for all of gestation?

A

Yes

187
Q

In the cow, is the CL necessary for all of gestation?

A

It is needed for most, but could be removed at the end of gestation

188
Q

What is estrogen produced by? When?

A

Placenta

The last of part of gestation

189
Q

What does the peak of estrogen in most species signal?

A

Early preparturient period

190
Q

What is placenta lactose found in? (4)

A

Rodents
Sheep
Cows
Humans

191
Q

What is placental lactogen similar to?

A

Growth hormone

192
Q

What does placental lactogen do?

A

Promote growth of fetus

Stimulates mammary gland of dam

193
Q

What is relaxin produced by?

A

Placentas

Ovary

194
Q

What animals is relaxin produce in? (7)

A 
Humans
Mares 
Cats
Dogs
Rabbits
Pigs
Monkeys
195
Q

What does relaxin do?

A

Softens connective tissue and allows muscles to stretch

196
Q

Near the end of gestation, what happens to the fetus?

A

It becomes stress and the fetal anterior pituitary release adrenal corticotropin (ACTH)

197
Q

What is ACTH?

A

A peptide hormone that stimulate the fetal adrenal cortex to produce corticoids

198
Q

What do the corticoids do?

A

Initiate a cascade of events that cause changes in the endocrine condition of the dam

199
Q

What 2 major events do endocrine changes in the dam cause to occur?

A

Removal of progesterone block

Increased reproductive tract secretions

200
Q

What are the 3 stages of parturition?

A

Initiation of myometrial contractions
Expulsion of the fetus
Expulsion of the fetal membranes

201
Q

What does fetal cortisol promote?

A

Synthesis of 3 enzymes that convert P4 to estradiol

202
Q

What do fetal corticoids cause to the placenta to do?

A

Synthesize PGF2α

203
Q

What happens as E2 and PGF2α increase?

A

The myometrium becomes more active and contractions begin

204
Q

As pressure inside the uterus increases, what happens to the fetus?

A

It rotates

205
Q

Where should the front feet and head be positioned at?

A

Posterior of the dam

206
Q

What will result if the fetus is not in the proper position?

A

Dystocia

207
Q

What happens to E2, PGF2α, and contractions at the end of stage 1?

A

They all continue to increase

208
Q

What does the fetus do at the end of stage 1?

A

Begins to push toward the cervix, applying pressure on the cervix

209
Q

What do pressure-sensitive neurons in the cervix do at the end of stage 1?

A

Cause neural response and oxytocin release from the hypothalamus

210
Q

What does oxytocin cause at the end of stage 1?

A

Contractions to increase and the fetus moves into cervical canal

211
Q

What other hormone is important in the movement of the fetus to the cervical canal?

A

Relaxin

212
Q

What does stage 2 of parturition do?

A

Initiates secretory activity of the reproductive tract

213
Q

What is produced during stage 2? What does it do?

A

Mucus

Washes out the cervical seal of pregnancy and lubricates the cervical canal and vagina

214
Q

In stage 2, what do the fetal head and front legs do?

A

Put pressure on fetal membranes, rupturing them

215
Q

Other than mucus, what lubricates the birth canal?

A

The loss of amniotic and allantoic fluid

216
Q

What happens as the fetus enters the brith canal? What does this cause?

A

It is deprived of oxygen

Promotes the movement of the fetus causing more contractions

217
Q

What in the dam is important in expulsion of the fetus?

A

Abdominal contractions

218
Q

What does the expulsion of fetal membranes require?

A

The chorionic villi must become dislodged from the crypts of the maternal side

219
Q

What assets with the chorionic villi becoming dislodged?

A

Vasoconstriction of arteries in the villi

220
Q

What is important during stage 3 in species with a hemochorial placenta?

A

Vasoconstriction on the maternal side

221
Q

What are some causes of dystocia? (3)

A

Abnormal presentation (26% of all dystocia in beef)
Excessive size of fetus (46% in beef)
Multiple births in monotocous species

222
Q

What can be some problems with multiple brits in monotocous species? (3)

A

Both twins may present simultaneously
First fetus is abnormal and blocks the second
Uterus experiences fatigue due to sustained contractions

223
Q

What is dystocia a major cause of?

A

Fetal death

224
Q

what does dystocia increase the chances of?

A

Retained placenta

225
Q

What happens to postpartum estrus due to dystocia?

A

Delayed

226
Q

What happens to fertility due to dystocia?

A

Decreases

227
Q

What happens to calving interval due to dystocia?

A

Increases

228
Q

What body weight should cattle be before breeding? Sheep?

A

55% of mature weight

65% of mature weight

229
Q

What can induced parturition be used for?

A

Facilitate close observation

230
Q

What does induced parturition do?

A

Shortens gestation and generation interval

231
Q

What can be a result of induced parturition?

A

Large fetuses

232
Q

What is used to induce parturition?

A

PGF2α and/or corticoids

233
Q

What is the gestation length of cows?

A

9 months

234
Q

What is the gestation length of ewes and goats?

A

5 months

235
Q

What is the gestation length of mares?

A

11 months

236
Q

What is the gestation length of sows?

A

3.8 months

237
Q

What is puerperium?

A

The period after parturition when the reproductive tract returns to its non-pregnant condition

238
Q

What is lactation?

A

Synthesis, secretion, and removal of milk from the mammary gland

239
Q

What is the goal during puerperium?

A

To restore reproductive function

240
Q

What are the 4 major events of the puerperium?

A
  1. Myometrial contractions and expulsion of lochia
  2. Endometrial repair
  3. Resumption of ovarian function
  4. Elimination of bacterial contamination of the reproductive tract
241
Q

What do the myometrial contractions after parturition serve to do? (3)

A
  1. Facilitate discharge of fluids and tissue debris from uterus
  2. Compress the uterine vasculature and help minimize the possibility of hemorrhage
  3. Reduce the overall size of the uterus
242
Q

What does suckling do?

A

Induces the release of oxytocin, which induce contractions

243
Q

What is lochia?

A

Bloody discharge expelled from the vulva

244
Q

What does lochia contain?

A

Remnants of fetal placenta and endometrial tissue

245
Q

When does lochia increase in dairy cows?Why?

A

Between days 5 and 10 postpartum

Sloughing of caruncles

246
Q

When does lochia end in cows?

A

By days 14-18

247
Q

Is bacterial contamination of the uterus normal? Why?

A

Yes

The warm, wet environment after parturition provides a good environment

248
Q

What is bacteria removed with?

A

Lochia

249
Q

What does high estradiol do for bacterial contamination?

A

Increase leukocytes, so the immune response removes bacteria

250
Q

When can uterine infection occur?

A

When high number of bacteria overwhelm the natural defense mechanism

251
Q

What can increase the incidence of uterine infection? (3)

A

Retained fetal membranes
Dystocia
Weak myometrial contractions

252
Q

What can a uterine infection cause? (2)

A

Prolonged involution

Delay in subsequent pregnancies

253
Q

What is the most affective way to get rid of an infection?

A

Return to cyclicity

254
Q

What is an economical reason to determine pregnancy?

A

A female that is not pregnant costs money to feed and house, but is not contributing to income

255
Q

How can you save money on an animal after determining that she is not pregnant?

A

The earlier you discover that she is open and sell her, the less money you waste

256
Q

Other than selling, why might a producer determine that an animal is open?

A

So they she can be submitted to a second AI

257
Q

What else can determining pregnancy be used for?

A

Management strategy

258
Q

What are 5 ways to determine pregnancy in cattle and when can they be done?

A 
Palpation per rectum (day 35)
Ultrasonography per rectum (day 28)
Milk progesterone (days 18-24)
Blood progesterone (days 18-24)
Pregnancy specific protein B (day 26)
259
Q

What are 5 ways to determine pregnancy in a ewe and doe and when can they be done?

A 
Ultrasonography per rectum (day 28)
Milk progesterone (days 18-2
Blood progesterone (days 18-24)
Vaginal biopsy (day 40)
Pregnancy specific protein B (day 26)
260
Q

What are 6 ways to determine pregnancy in horses and when can they be done?

A 
Palpation per rectum (day 35)
Ultrasonography per rectum (day 28)
Milk progesterone (days 18-2
Blood progesterone (days 18-24)
Equine chorionic gonadotropin (day 40)
Estrone sulfate (day 70 up to 2 weeks prior to foaling)
261
Q

What are 3 ways to determine pregnancy in swine?

A

Return to estrus
Abdominal ultrasonography
Blood progesterone

262
Q

What does BioPRYNes for equine do? How much does it cost?

A

Measures estrone sulfate in blood via ELISA

$25

263
Q

What does BioPRYN for cattle do? How much does it cost?

A

Measures pregnancy specific protein B in blood via ELISA

$2.50

264
Q

What does BioPRYN for sheep and goats do? How much does it cost?

A

Measures pregnancy specific protein B in blood via ELISA

$6.50

265
Q

What are 3 suggestive palpable signs of pregnancy?

A

Increase in size of one horn
Presence of fluid
Presence of function CL

266
Q

What are 3 positive palpable signs of pregnancy?

A

Fetal membrane slip
Presence of amnionic vesicle
Presence of placentomes

267
Q

What is a pro to palpation compared to blood?

A

You know much quicker if the animal is pregnant

268
Q

When can you find the fetal membrane slip?

A

At 35 days

269
Q

How can you find the fetal membrane slip?

A

Palpation of the fetal membranes

Place widest part of thumb between thumb and forefinger and slide up

270
Q

When do cotyledons begin to appear?

A

Around 100-120 days

271
Q

What is not a good method of determining stage of pregnancy? Why?

A

Placentome

Size varies

272
Q

What does the ultrasound transducer do?

A

Acts to send and receive sound waves

273
Q

How are sound waves created by the transducer?

A

Crystals that vibrate

274
Q

What does a fluid look like on an ultrasound?

A

Black because there is no image

275
Q

What is bone like on an ultrasound?

A

Reflects sound waves because it is the most dense tissue, so it is white

276
Q

What do other tissue look like on an ultrasound?

A

Various shades of gray

277
Q

What is the earliest someone could detect pregnancy?

A

Day 22, but day 30-35 for a more positive diagnosis

278
Q

What are some advantages do ultrasound? (6)

A

Pregnancy can be detected earlier the palpation
Direct manipulation of the gravid tract is unnecessary
More accurately measure age
Detect fetal sex
Detect infections of uterus
View ovarian structures

279
Q

What has artificial insemination been deemed?

A

The single most important physiological technology devised for acceleration of genetic improvement

280
Q

What was the first reported use of AI?

A

In 1300 by Arabian horse breeders

281
Q

What was the first documented report of successful AI?

A

In 1780 in Italy with dogs

282
Q

Where did AI in cattle begin?

A

Russia

283
Q

What are the steps of AI? (3)

A

Collect of semen from the male
Preservation and extension of sperm
Insemination of female

284
Q

How many dairy cows are AI’ed?

A

7 million per year

285
Q

How many beef cows are AI’ed?

A

2 million per year

286
Q

How many turkeys are AI’ed?

A

All–300 million

287
Q

How many sows and gilts are AI’ed?

A

75%

288
Q

Describe commercial semen compared to custom collection (6)

A 
More stringent guidelines on bull care and semen quality
Better gurantee
Beteer EPD information
More expensive
Sexed seme is an option
Other products besides semen
289
Q

Describe custom collection compared to commercial semen (6)

A 
Eliminates middle man
Reduced cost
More profit goes to bull owner
Producers can maintain ownership
More risk when buying semen
No extras
290
Q

What must be determined to properly dilute sperm? (3)

A

Volume of ejaculate
Concentration of sperm
Percent motile sperm

291
Q

What percentage is good for motile sperm?

A

60%

292
Q

How can you calculate the total amount of sperm?

A

ejaculate volume x sperm/mL

293
Q

What does knowing the total number of sperm in the ejaculate allow for?

A

The determination of the number of doses

294
Q

How many units of sperm can bulls produce?

A

200,000 each year

295
Q

How many units of sperm can boars produce?

A

1,500 to 2,000 each year

296
Q

What are seminal extenders used to do?

A

Preserve sperm
Extend the lifetime of sperm
Extend the number of sperm

297
Q

Why must extenders be isotonic?

A

So that water neither moves into or out of the sperm cell

298
Q

What must extenders be? Why?

A

Good buffers

Reduce the change in pH

299
Q

What are cryoprotectants used for?

A

As protection against cold damage

300
Q

When letting the seminal extenders temperature decline, what rate do a bull and stallion require?

A

Slow decline

301
Q

What do sperm use for energy?

A

Fructose and glucose

302
Q

Why must antibiotics be added to an extender? (3)

A

Ejaculated same is not sterile
Bacteria is present of penis and sheath
Seminal plasm and extender are ideal for microbial growth

303
Q

At what temperature do most species prefer short-term storage to be? Swine

A

5ºC (near freezing)

18ºC

304
Q

What does long term storage of semen require?

A

Freezing in liquid nitrogen and specific thawing techniques

305
Q

What does freezing and thawing do?

A

Comprises viability and fertility

306
Q

What does sperm contain?

A

An X or Y chromosome to determine sex of the embryo

307
Q

What drives the desire to separate sperm by sex?

A

Either sex has a significantly more economic value in some production settings

308
Q

What are some disadvantages to sexed semen? (5)

A 
Expensive equipment
Slow rate of separation
Damage to sperm
Few bulls available
Semen sold in smaller doses
309
Q

What kind of insemination is used in cattle? Where is semen deposited?

A

Transcervical

Uterine body

310
Q

What kind of insemination is used in swine? Where is semen deposited?

A

Intracervical

Cranial cervix

311
Q

What kind of insemination is used in dogs and cats? Where is semen deposited?

A

Intravaginal

Vagina

312
Q

What method is used to inseminate cows?

A

Recto-vaginal method

313
Q

Which animal is insemination the easier in?

A

Sow

314
Q

How much semen is used in pigs?

A

80 mL

315
Q

How much semen is used in horses?

A

50 mL

316
Q

What are reasons to use estrus synchronization? (5)

A

Establish pregnancy in all females in all females on the 1st day of breeding season
Increase number of opportunities to breed
Advances calving season and increases days at postpartum
Uniform calf crop
Facilitate AI

317
Q

What 4 hormones are used to synchronize estrus?

A

Progesterone
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Prostaglandin F2α
hCG and eCG

318
Q

How can be P4 given?

A

Orally (Melengestrol acetate–MGA)

Intravaginally (Controlled Internal Drug Release–CIDR)

319
Q

What will happen with the administration of P4?

A

The animal will not ovulate

320
Q

What will happen with the removal of P4?

A

The group will into estrus about the same time

321
Q

What can progesterone also do?

A

Jumpstart anestrous animals into cycling

322
Q

What is an injection of GnRH used to do?

A

Induce ovulation

323
Q

In order for GnRH to induce ovulation, what must be present on the ovary?

A

A large enough follicle

324
Q

What does PGF2α do?

A

Regresses the CL

325
Q

What must be present for PGF2α to have any effect?

A

A functional CL

326
Q

What is the oral progesterone used in mares and swine?

A

Alternogest

327
Q

Look at protocols! Know why hormones are given when they are and some pros and cons of each protocol when compared to another

A

Look at protocols! Know why hormones are given when they are and some pros and cons of each protocol when compared to another

328
Q

What are some advantage to embryo transfer? (5)

A

Circumvention of seasonal reproduction
Enhanced generation of offspring
Assisted reproduction for infertility
Enhanced reproductive potential of endangered species
Enhanced genetic diversity across a wide region

329
Q

What is superovulation used to do?

A

Increase the potential offspring from a donor animal

330
Q

What is superovulation due to?

A

An abnormally high number of follicles that are selected followed by ovulation

331
Q

What does superovulation require?

A

Administration of exogenous gonadotropins

332
Q

In superovulation, what percentage of the cows respond by producing one or fewer viable embryos?

A

30%

333
Q

In superovulation, what percentage of the cows will produce as many as 30 embryos?

A

2%

334
Q

How can oocytes be recovered? (3)

A

Surgically exposing ovary and aspirating follicles
Non-surgically aspirating follicles with ultrasonography
Aspirating follicles postmortem

335
Q

How is fertilization completed after oocytes are collected?

A

in vitro

336
Q

When can recipient females be set up to receive embryos?

A

At the time they are flushed (fresh transfer) or later (frozen transfer)

337
Q

What must the recipients estrous cycle be like when flushed?

A

At the same point as the donor’s

338
Q

What day of her cycle must the recipient be on? Why?

A

Day 7

Flushing usually occurs on day 7

339
Q

What is the practical application of IVF?

A

Quickly multiple genetics of the best cow with the best bull

340
Q

What is the research application of IVF?

A

Convenient way to study early embryo

341
Q

What are some disadvantages to IVF? (4)

A

Expensive
Technical
Non-efficient
Sensitive process

342
Q

What are the 3 steps to in vitro fertilization?

A

Maturation
Fertilization
Culture

343
Q

What is intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)?

A

A singe sperm is placed directly into cytoplasm of oocyte

344
Q

What does ICSI work well in? What is it limited in?

A

Humans

Livvestock

345
Q

What was ICSI developed to do?

A

Overcome fertility problems with the male

346
Q

What are the 3 methods of cloning?

A

Embryo splitting
Nuclear transfer
Cloning using somatic cells

347
Q

What is the most common method of cloning in production?

A

Embryo splitting

348
Q

What decreases the viability of an embryo?

A

Further divides than being split in half

349
Q

What is nuclear transfer?

A

The nucleus of an unfertilized oocyte is removes and cells from a trophoblast cell are placed in the enucleated cell

350
Q

What method of cloning was used for Dolly the sheep?

A

Cloning by somatic cells

351
Q

What are some anatomical abnormalities that are reproductive failures? (7)

A 
Freemartinism
Underdeveloped reproductive system
Incomplete structures
Hermaphrodite
Cryptorchid
Injuries
Vaginal or uterine prolapse
352
Q

What is an example of physiological abnormalities?

A

Cystic ovaries

353
Q

What are follicular cysts?

A

When the follicle get large, but do not ovulate

354
Q

What are luteinized follicles?

A

When the follicles become covered in luteal tissue even though they did not ovulate

355
Q

What is a cystic CL?

A

A large fluid-filled cavity in the CL

356
Q

What is the embryonic period?

A

Conception to the end of differentiation (day 45)

357
Q

What is the fetal period?

A

Day 45 to delivery

358
Q

What is early embryonic loss?

A

Loss before day 24

359
Q

What is late embryonic loss?

A

Loss between day 24 and day 42-50

360
Q

What is pregnancy loss?

A

Greater than day 50

361
Q

What has a major impact on fertilization?

A

Heat stress

362
Q

Why is there reduced fertility in negative energy balance?

A

Reduced embryo quality and viability

363
Q

How much of all pregnancies are lost in high producing dairy cows?

A

60%

364
Q

What factors can influence embryonic loss? (9- name a few)

A 
Oocyte quality and persistent follicles
Progesteron and uterine environment
Maternal recognition of pregnancy
Heat stress
BCS
Cycling status
Dietary ingredients
Sire 
Diseases
365
Q

What are persistent follicles?

A

Old follicles that if ovulated have decrease fertility

366
Q

What is a dietary ingredient that can cause problems? (3)

A

Gossypol in cottonseed
Mycotoxins produced by molds
Various vitamin and mineral deficiencies

367
Q

What do high environmental temperatures do? (3)

A

Decrease viability of oocytes
Reduced oocyte quality
Reduced fertilization rate

Physiology of Reproduction (3 decks)

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