Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
non-associative learning
A
involves change in the magnitude of response to environmental events
2
Q
habituation
A
decrease in strength or occurrence of behavior after repeated exposure
3
Q
what is the purpose of habituation?
A
allows organism to focus on learning new or important information
4
Q
sensation
A
experience of one startling stimulus heightens responding to subsequent stimuli
5
Q
associative learning
A
involves a connection between two elements or events
6
Q
classical conditioning
A
formation of connections or associations between related sensations, emotions, or thoughts
7
Q
unconditional stimulus (US)
A
biologically relevant stimulus
8
Q
unconditional response (UR)
A
an unlearned reaction to US
9
Q
conditioned stimulus (CS)
A
an initially neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to signal important biological events (ex: bell)
10
Q
conditioned response (CR)
A
a learned reaction to the CS
11
Q
gill-withdraw reflex
A
occurs when touching the siphon produces a retraction of the gill
12
Q
habituation in Aplysia
A
less glutamate released onto motor neuron, making the reaction to the siphon smaller each time
13
Q
sensation in Aplysia
A
shocking the head or tail resulting in ENHANCED gill-withdraw reflex following the siphon touch
14
Q
what is the additional NT required for sensation in Aplysia?
A
an interneuron, SEROTONIN
15
Q
reflexes
A
involuntary response to stimuli
16
Q
instincts
A
automatic complex behavior
17
Q
where is LTP?
A
interpositus neurons
18
Q
where is LTD?
A
purkinje cells
19
Q
what is LTP?
A
long-term potentiation
20
Q
what is LTD?
A
long-term depression
21
Q
memory
A
the concrete trace of what you learned left in your neural networks
22
Q
short term or working memory
A
active and temporary representation of information that is maintained for short periods of time
23
Q
central executive
A
monitors and manipulates working memory information
- located in the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
24
Q
declarative or explicit memory
A
memories for facts or events
25
2 types of declarative memories
- semantic "what is a...?"
| - episodic "what happened?"
26
non-declarative or implicit memory
memories for skills, habits, and emotions
27
3 types of non-declarative memories
- procedural "how to...?"
- associative (classical and operative conditioning)
- nonassociative (habituation and sensitization)
28
who is HM? and what did he have done?
Henry Gustav Molaison
| had 2/3 of medial temporal lobes removed to help stop seizures resulting in ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
29
retrograde amnesia
cannot remember the past
30
anterograde amnesia
cannot form NEW memories
31
what are the 3 stages of memory
1. encoding
2. storage/consolidation
3. retrieval
32
consolidation
process of forming a physical representation of memory
33
standard consolidation theory
hippocampus binds many components of memory together. as consolidation occurs, memory becomes hippocampal-independent and memory looses specificity
34
lateralization
localization of function in one or the other hemispheres
35
rasmussen's syndrome
produces seizures in only one hemisphere
| - solved by hemispherectomy
36
severed pathways in split brain
- anterior commissure (temporal lobe)
- corpus callosum
- thalamus
- mass intermedia
- hippocampal commissure
- hippocampus
37
interpreter
one hemisphere tries to make sense of actions
- like right hemisphere makes you point at an object, left hemisphere does not understand so it tries to make sense of it
38
what does the RIGHT hemisphere control?
- emotion
- intuition
- spatial relations
39
what does the LEFT hemisphere control?
- logic
- sequence
- verbal
40
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
fetus' adrenal glands release elevated levels of androgens
- in females: no change
- in males: higher proportion are left handed but no language change
41
right handedness
90% right handed
95% localize language in LEFT hemisphere
4% localize in right hemisphere
1% localize in both
42
left handedness
10% left handed
70% localize language in LEFT hemisphere
15% localize in right hemisphere
15% localize in both
43
dichotic listening
different sounds present simultaneously to both ears
44
prosody
use of intonation and stress in language to convey emotional tone and meaning
45
where is perfect pitch found?
planum temporale, a brain region near the auditory tube
46
language
system of rule-based communication that combines symbols (sounds and gestures) in order to express a meaning, idea, or thought
47
FOXP2 gene
located on chromosome 7
| - codes transcription factor which regulates expression of large number of genes
48
KE family
mutation associated with disrupted speech production and comprehension
49
regions compromised by FOXP2 gene
* caudate nucleus
- cerebellum
- lobules VIIB and VIIIB
- motor cortex (ventral sector)
- broca's area
- brodmann's 44, 45, and 6
50
mirror neuron
regions of the brain that activate when you do an action or see someone else doing that action
51
bilingualism
easier to learn when younger, gray matter increases in cortical regions with language proficiency
52
wernicke-geschwind model of language
- word comprehension occurs in wernicke's area
- speech response generated in broca's area
- speech production controlled via motor cortex and basal ganglia activation
53
language implementation system
decodes incoming verbal information and produce appropriate verbal response. depends on broca's area, wernicke's area, insular cortex, and basal ganglia
54
mediational system
manages communication between implementation and conceptual systems. depends on temporal, frontal and parietal lobes
55
conceptual system
manages semantic knowledge. depends on high level cortical association areas
56
aphasis
brain damage that results in total or partial loss of ability to either produce or comprehend spoken language
57
broca's aphasia
- in broca's area, along inferior frontal gyrus
- speech production and writing deficits
- anomia: difficulty retrieving correct words for idea they wish to express
- comprehension intact
- singing intact
58
wernicke's aphasia
- in wernicke's area, below superior temporal gyrus
- comprehension for both spoken and written word impaired
- speech is rapid and fluent but virtually meaningless
- seems unaware they make no sense
- neologisms common
59
motor transcortical aphasia
- dorsolateral PFC damage
- affects higher cognitive and attentional functions related to language production
- initiation of speech disrupted
- unable to produce verbs related to particular nouns
60
sensory transcortical aphasia
- affects ability to understand meaningful words
| - speech is grammatical and fluent
61
alexia
- reading
- word blindness
- can recognize spoken words
62
alexia - left occipital cortex damage
affects ability to perceive words and word like shapes
63
alexia - corpus callosum damage
prevents transfer of information from right visual cortex to left language areas
64
agraphia
- writing
- inability to write
- damage to motor control areas
65
phonological agraphia
unable to sounds out new or difficult words
66
orthographic agraphia
can spell only phonetically
67
dyslexia
impairment in reading despite intelligence and exposure
- reading words backwards
- confusing mirror image letters
- trouble fixating on printed words
68
stuttering
producing repetitions pr prolonging of sounds
- primarily genetic
- both hemispheres vie to control speech production
69
emotion
subjective experience that arise spontaneously and unconsciously in response to internal and external events
70
components of emotion
- physical reaction
| - conscious experience or feeling
71
functions of emotion
- arousal
- approach/avoidance
- communication
72
where are facial expressions controlled?
facial nuclei in the pons nuclei near midline
73
voluntary expressions
motor cortex input
74
involuntary expressions
subcortical (basil ganglia)
75
volitional facial paralysis
unable to perform on command emotion on contralateral side of damage but can spontaneously show emotion all over
76
emotional facial paralysis
lose spontaneous emotion but still have on command emotion
| - seen in parkinson's
77
universal emotions
```
happiness
sadness
anger
fear
disgust
surprise
```
78
high reactivity
anxiety disorders
79
low reactivity
antisocial behaviors
80
non-responsive
psychopaths
81
james-lange theory
specific patterns of autonomic arousal leads to specific emotions
- emotion can be induced by the corresponding bodily responses
82
cannon-bard theory
autonomic arousal and identification occur simultaneously and independently
83
schacter-singer theory
physiological arousal contributes to emotions intensity, while identity of emotion is based on cognitive appraisal
84
biological correlations of emotion
ANS
amygdala
cingulate cortex
cerebral cortex
85
limbic system
```
thalamus
cingulate cortex
corpus callosum
amygdala
hippocampus
hypothalamus
```
86
kluver-bucy syndrome
bilateral temporalobectomy
- effects amygdala
- decreases emotional reactivity
- hyper-sexuality
- hyper-orality
87
amygdala stimualtion
produces fear and anxiety
88
amygdala damage
difficulty identifying fear and anger expressions
89
urbach-weithe disease
display arousal when started but cannot learn conditioned emotional response
90
anterior cingulate cortex
on top of corpus callosum; role in emotion, attention, cognitive processing, and consciousness
91
right hemisphere controls...
negative emotions, sympathetic
92
damage to the right hemisphere...
surprisingly cheerful
93
left hemisphere controls...
positive emotions, parasympathetic
94
damage to left hemisphere...
depression
95
which hemisphere processes emotions better and faster?
RIGHT
96
stress
unpleasant and disruptive state resulting from the perception of danger or threat
97
stressor
source of stress, can be physical or psychological
98
SNS activation does what?
increases cathecholamines
99
HPA activation does what?
increases cortisol
100
epinephrine (adrenaline)
- increases output from heart
| - liberates glucose from muscles for additional energy
101
cortisol
- increases energy by converting proteins to glucose, increasing fat availability, and increasing metabolism
- increases amount of Ca2+ entering neurons.. too much can be neurotoxic
102
migraine
characterized by recurrent headaches, usually accompanied by nausea, vomitting, photophobia, and/or phonophobia
103
vascular theory of headache
increased blood flow in brain distends blood vessels, which exert pressure on surrounding tissue
104
migraine generator
hypothetical structure that when activated leads to migraines
- raphe nucleus
105
strokes
occur when brain's blood supply is interrupted by bleeding or blockage of blood vessels
106
cerebral hemorrhage
bleeding in brain
- results from high BP (hypertension) or structural defects
- aneurysms may occur and rupture
107
ischemia
blockage of CNS vasculature or low oxygen levels
| - 80% of all strokes
108
infract
an area of dead neural tissue
109
thrombosis
material that blocks blood vessel without moving from it's point of origin
110
embolism
material that passes into smaller and smaller vessels until it forms a blockage
111
low oxygen leads to...
excess glutamate release, resulting in NMDA receptor excitotoxcity
112
traumatic brain injury
physical damage to brain, causes include traffic accidents, gunshot wounds, falls, etc
113
concussion
occur in response to blow to the head resulting in "implosive" force transmitted to brain
114
coup
primary impact of concussion, damage to site of blow
115
countercoup
secondary impact of concussion, damage to opposite side of impact
116
post-concussion syndrome (PCS)
lack of concentration, reduction in processing speed, attention and memory.
side effects: headache, depression, irritability
117
chronic traumatic brain injury (CTBI)
permanent damage from repeated mild head injuries. resulting in slurred speech, memory impairment, personality changes, lack of coordination, and parkinson's like syndromes
118
tumor
independent growth of new tissue that lacks purpose
119
benign
contained within their own membrane
| - do NOT metastasize
120
malignant
lacks distinct boundaries
121
metastasize
shed cells can travel and grow, though very rare in brain tumors
122
gilomas
develop in glial cells
123
meningiomas
develop in meninges cells
| * usually benign
124
multiple sclerosis
autoimmune condition disorder, body's own immune system attacks CNS
125
seizures
uncontrolled electrical disturbances in the brain correlated with changes in consciousness
126
epilepsy
repetitive unprovoked seizures
127
partial seizures
may be preceded by an aura or sense that seizure will occur
128
simple partial
movement or sensations appropriate to location of seizure
129
complex partial
begins in temporal lobes and associated with alternations of consciousness
130
generalized seizure
activation of circuits between thalamus and cortex, affects both sides of brain
131
petit mal
AKA absence seizure
person losses consciousness and movements limited to blinking, head turns, and eye movement
- lasts ~10 secs
- characterized by EEG patterns
132
grand mal
AKA tonic-clonic seizures
- 10 secs tonic phase: loss of consciousness, cessation of breathing, muscular contractions
- 1 min clonic phase: violent rhythmic convulsions, sweat and salvation
- 5 min coma phase: transition out of seizures, patient remains unconscious
133
treatment for seizures
anti-epileptic drugs (GABA agonists), split brain surgery, ketogenic diet
134
brain infections
- parasites
| - bacterial, viral, and fungal
135
neurocyticerosis
ingestion of T.solium eggs in contaminated pork products. eggs hatch in stomach then larvae lodge in skins, muscle, eye, and brain. no symptoms until encysted worm dies, up to 5 years later
136
primary encephalitis
occurs when virus directly invades CNS
137
secondary encephalitis
occurs following viral infection of other parts of the body
| - ex: herpes simplex virus
138
west nile virus
an encephalitis causing virus that is carried by birds and transmitted to humans via mosquitoes
139
meningitis
bacterial, viral, or fungal infection of CNS that produces flu-like symptoms, defined by stiff neck, aversion to bright lights, and drowsiness
140
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
a group of progressive conditions that affect CNS of many animals, including humans
141
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is also called..?
mad cow disease
142
scrappie is found in?
goat and sheep
143
creutzfeildt-jacob disease (CJD)
human form of TSE
144
kuru
new strand of CJD found in new guinea
145
prions
proteins that are unique in their ability to reproduce on their own and become infectious. do NOT contain genetic material but once they infect they can proliferate
146
schizophrenia
"split mind"
| - disturbance in reason, emotion, perception, and social relation
147
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
- hallucinations
- delusions and paranoia
- disorganized speech and behavior
148
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
- social and emotional withdrawal
| - absence of normal cognition or affect (flat affect, poverty of speech)
149
cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia
- poor "executive functioning"
- inability to sustain attention
- problems with working memory
150
diathesis
genetic predisposition and vulnerability
151
stress
life stressors can trigger disorder
152
abnormalities caused by schizophrenia
- enlarged ventricles
- cellular disorganization
- hypofrontality
- decreased hemispherical symmetry
- adolescent loss of gray matter
- smaller hippocampus
153
hyopfrontality
decreased activation of frontal lobe
| - associated with negative symptoms
154
dopamine hypothesis
schizophrenia is caused by excess dopamine
155
problems with dopamine hypothesis
- different time course for speed at which drug blocks receptors (hours) and behavioral effects (weeks)
- 25% do NOT respond to dopamine antagonists
- atypical antipsychotic drugs suggest other NT's involved (serotonin)
156
glutamate hypothesis
schizophrenia symptoms may be related to reduced activity of glutamate (particularly NMDA receptors)
157
treatment of schizophrenia
typical antipsychotic block dopamine throughout the brain
158
neuroleptics
have greater effects on positive than negative symptoms
159
atypical antipsychotics
act on serotonin and dopamine receptors, can reduce both positive and negative symptoms
160
repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
reduces auditory hallucinations
161
symptoms of major depression disorder (MDD)
- depressed mood for at least 2 weeks
- loss of pleasure in normally enjoyable activities
- sleep disturbances
- eating alterations
- lack of energy or restlessness
- difficulty concentrating
- feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness
- suicidal thoughts
162
structural abnormalities in MDD
- decreased volume of hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex
| - increased amygdala volume
163
functional changes in MDD
- decreased ACC activation
| - increased blood flows to PFC and amygdala
164
monoamine theory
depression is associated with reduced activity in monoaminergic systems
165
what are the monoamines?
serotonin, norepinephrine, epinphrine, and dopamine
166
monoamine oxidase
inhibitors block destruction of excess monoamines in the terminals
167
tricyclic antidepressants
block reuptake at synapse
168
second generation antidepressant
affect single neurotransmitter
169
prozac
one of several selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI's)
170
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
- used when patient does not respond to medicine
| - 70 to 130 volts of electricity to head of anesthetized patient to produce seizure and convulsions
171
bipolar disorder
alternates between mania and depression
172
what is bipolar disorder treated with?
lithium
173
neurotransmitters in anxiety responses
serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA
174
generalized anxiety disorder
most common psychiatric disorder
175
panic attack
intense fear or discomfort
| - repeated attacks followed by at least one month of worrying about another attack
176
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
characterized by uncontrollable obsessions and compulsions which the sufferer usually recognizes as being excessive or unreasonable
177
obsession
reoccurring thoughts or impulses that are intrusive or inappropriate and cause the suffer anxiety
178
compulsion
repetitive behaviors or rituals performed by the sufferer. performance of these rituals neutralizes the anxiety caused by the obsessions, though relief is temporary
179
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
recurrent dreams of trauma, flashbacks, hyper-arousal and avoidance of stimuli associated with trauma. high levels of vigilance and impairment in daily function
180
lifetime prevalence of PTSD
1-10%
181
natural disaster PTSD
4-16%
182
war veterans PTSD
30%
183
sexual assault victims PTSD
50%
184
prisoners of war PTSD
50-75%
185
treatment of PTSD
medication and/or cognitive behavior treatment- including extinction therapy
186
treatment of OCD
SSRI's in conjunction with behavioral therapy
