Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
what is developed from the diencephalon?
A
thalamus and hypothalamus
2
Q
what is developed from the telencephalon?
A
isocortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
3
Q
what are the two branches of the forebrain?
A
diencephalon and telencephalon
4
Q
what are the two branches of the hindbrain?
A
myelencephalon and metencephalon
5
Q
what is the myelencephalon?
A
medulla
6
Q
what is developed from the metencephalon?
A
pons and cerebellum
7
Q
functions of the medulla?
A
breathing, heart rate, and BP
8
Q
functions of pons?
A
sleep, arousal, audition, and balance
9
Q
functions of cerebellum?
A
motor coordination, balance and cognition
10
Q
function of the thalamus?
A
sensory relay, arousal, consciousness
11
Q
functions of the hypothalamus?
A
regulatory center, controls pituitary gland, and ANS control
12
Q
functions of the limbic system?
A
emotional behavior and learning
13
Q
what is included in the limbic system?
A
amygdala, hippocampus, and citgulate cortex
14
Q
function of basal ganglia?
A
control of movement
15
Q
dorsal half of the midbrain is referred to as?
A
tectum
16
Q
ventral half of the midbrain is referred to as?
A
tegmentum
17
Q
function of the superior colliculi?
A
guide eye movement and fixation of gazing
18
Q
function of the inferior colliculi?
A
locate direction of sounds
19
Q
what is the corpus callosum?
A
dense band that links both hemispheres
20
Q
what is the encephalization quotient?
A
ratio of brain to body size
21
Q
where/what is Broca’s area?
A
located in the frontal lobe, vital for speech formation
22
Q
where is the motor homunculus?
A
precentral gyrus (frontal lobe)
23
Q
where is the sensory homunculus?
A
postcentral gyrus (parietal lobe)
24
Q
nerves by electricity where discovered by who?
A
luigi galvani and emil du bois-reymond
25
nissl stain
to view cell bodies of neurons
| ex: crystal violet
26
golgi stain
to view single cells, darkly stains full neurons
27
myelin stain
stains myelin that wraps around and insulates axons, identifies neural pathways. very hard to find and individual neuron
28
what is stereotaxic surgery?
used to localize problems in brain by using one spot on the skull to pinpoint the 3D location of the problem.
used for lesions
29
what are meninges and the 3 layers?
layers of membrane that surround the nervous system
- dura mater
- arachnoid membrane
- pia mater
30
what is CSF?
cerebral spinal fluid, moves self-contained and separate circulation from the blood supply
31
where is CSF found?
in the ventricles, made by choroid plexus
32
what is parasympathetic? what does it do?
```
"rest and digest"
calms the body to conserve and maintain energy
releases ACETYLCHOLINE
decreases heart rate and BP
stimulates digestion
```
33
what is sympathetic? what does it do?
"fight or flight"
releases ADRENALINE and NOREPINEPHRINE
increases heart rate, BP, and blood flow to skeletal muscles
inhibits digestion
34
what is the flow of info in a neuron?
dendrites - cell body - axon
35
what is a sensory neuron?
carries info from the body to the brain and spinal cord.
| AFFERENT
36
what is an interneuron?
connects one neuron to another in the brain or spinal cord
37
what is a motor neuron?
carries info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and organs
38
what are glia cells?
non-neural cells that provide physical and functional support to neurons
39
what are the 3 types of glia cells?
astrocytes, obligodendtocytes, schwann cells, and micro glia
40
what is the function of astrocytes?
```
structural and nutritional support
isolation of synapse
clean up debris
blood-brain barrier
possible roles in signaling
```
41
what is the function of obligodendrocytes?
myelination of axons in the CNS
42
what is the function of schwann cells?
myelination of axons in the PNS
43
what is the function of microglia?
clean up debris
| *release substances that can lead to neuroinflammation
44
what are the ingredients of the intra/extracelluar fluid?
```
water (H20)
potassium (K+)
sodium (Na+)
calcium (Ca2+)
chloride (Cl-)
protein anions (A-)
```
45
is the concentration of Na+ higher on the inside or outside of the neuron? so, which way does the gradient flow?
outside, so it flows from outside to inside
46
what direction is the electrical flow of Na+?
outside to inside
47
is the concentration of K+ higher on the inside or outside of the neuron? so, which way does the gradient flow?
inside, so it flows from inside to outside
48
what direction is the electrical flow of K+?
outside to inside
49
what is resting membrane potential?
when the concentration of K+ is equal on the outside and inside of the neuron
usually -70mV
50
what is action potential (AP)?
a method by which neurons communicate
51
when does AP fire?
when the axon hillock region is MORE POSTIVE or depolarized
| usually around -65 mV
52
what is the threshold?
usually -65 mV
| once the axon hillock region reaches this, channels automatically open and AP is fired.
53
what are the three phases of AP?
rising
overshoot
falling
54
what happens in the rising phase?
Na+ enters the neuron
| depolarization
55
what happens in the overshoot phase?
neuron is now positive on the inside relative to the outside
56
what happens in the falling phase?
K+ exits the neuron
| hyperpolarization
57
what is depolarization?
making the neuron more positive
58
what is hyperpolarization?
making the cell more negative
59
what voltage gate channels are involved in AP?
Na+ : opens when the AP is depolarized and opens immediately
K+ : opens when AP is hyper polarized and opening is slightly delayed
60
what is responsible for AP initiation and propagation?
rapid opening and closing of channels
61
what are the nodes of ranvier?
bare space of axon membrane where ions move through channels
62
what is an absolute refractory period?
neuron can NOT fire again until membrane potential is hyperpolarized, reopening Na+ channels
63
what is a relative refractory period?
neuron can fire again with strong stimulus. membrane potential becomes hyperpolarized
64
what are the steps of synaptic transmission?
1. AP reaches axon terminal
2. Ca2+ ion channels open, allowing Ca2+ ions in
3. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release from microtubules
4. synaptic vesicles fuse with axon membrane at release sites
5. vesicles open, releasing neurotransmitters into synaptic gap
6. vesicle material is recycled
7. vesicle can either return to neuron via retrograde transport OR are refilled at axon terminal
65
what is a voltage gated receptor?
activated based on changes in membrane potential
66
what is a ligand gated receptor?
activated by the binding of specific molecule OR neurotransmitter
67
what is an electrical synapse?
usually found at gap junctions where speed is key and can ONLY be excitatory
68
what are the characteristics of electrical synapse?
fast transmission
bi-directional
usually do NOT occur at axon terminal
69
what is responsible for vesicle fusion and transmitter release?
Ca2+
70
what is an auto receptor?
a presynaptic receptor that regulates the synthesis and release of NTs usually inhibitory
71
what is ionotropic?
opens channels directly
relatively fast acting
relatively short lasting
effects are localized
72
what is metabotropic?
```
opens channels indirectly
uses chemicals called secondary messengers
relatively slow acting
relatively long lasting
effects are widespread and varied
```
73
what is an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)?
opens Na+ channels
depolarizes dendrites and cell body
facilitates likelihood of AP
74
what is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)?
opens K+ or Cl- channels
hyperpolarizes dendrites and cell body
decreases the likelihood of AP
75
what is synaptic integration?
combining a number of individual signals into ONE overall signal
76
what is temporal summation?
occurs over time allowing AP to build
77
what is spatial summation?
occurs over space combining all EPSP and IPSP occurring at different locations on the dendrites and cell body
78
what is presynaptic facilitation?
increases the amount of NT released by postsynaptic terminal button
79
what is presynaptic inhibition?
decreases the amount of NT released by postsynaptic terminal button
80
what is the life cycle of a NT?
synthesis from precursor chemicals
storage into synaptic vesicles
release via exocytosis from presynaptic terminal
- triggered by AP and opening of Ca2+ channel
- modulated by presynaptic facilitation or inhibition
receptor binding
- can be ionotropic or metabotropic
deactivation
- can be by diffusion, reuptake, or enzyme degradation
81
what are the three ways NTs can be deactivated?
diffusion, reuptake, or enzyme degradation
82
what is a neurotransmitter?
communicate locally across the synapse
83
what is a neuromodulator?
communicate with target cells more distant than the synapse by diffusing away from point of release
84
what is a neurohormone?
communicate with target cells at great distances, often by traveling through circulation
85
what is the acetylcholine IONOTROPIC receptor? what does it do? where is it found?
nicotin receptor
gates Na+
excitatory
found in neuromuscular junction in the ANS
86
what is the acetycholine METABOTROPIC receptor? what does it do? where is it found?
muscarnic receptor
can be excitatory or inhibitory
found in the brain
87
function and parts of cholinergic system?
functions: attention, learning and memory
parts: basal forebrain, cholinergic nuclei of pons and midbrain
88
dopamine
metabotropic
| can be excitatory or inhibitory
89
parts of dopaminergic system?
frontal lobe
basal ganglia
limbic system
90
what are the three systems of dopaminergic neurons?
mesolimbic
mesocortical
nigrostriatal
91
what is the mesolimbic system?
projections from the ventral segmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, and amygdala
function: reward
implicated in: addiction
92
what is the mesocortical system?
projections from the VTA to the prefrontal cortex
function: planning and problem solving
implicated in: schizophrenia
93
what is nigrostriatal system?
projections from substantia nigra to basal ganglia
function: control of movement
implicated in: parkinson's disease
94
serotonin (5-HT)
metabotropic
| can be excitatory or inhibitory
95
functions and parts of serotonergic system?
functions: sleep, arousal, mood, and appetite
parts: raphe nuclei
96
what is the principle EXCITATORY transmitter in the CNS?
glutamate
97
what is the principle INHIBITORY transmitter in the CNS?
GABA
98
glutamate
ionotropic receptors: AMPA and NMDA
| can also have metabotropic receptors
99
what does AMPA receptor do?
gates Na+
| excitatory
100
what does NDMA receptor do?
unique bc it requires BOTH ligand binding and membrane depolarization
101
nitric oxide
diffuses through membrane independent of vesicles
| retrograde transmitter influencing presynaptic neuron release
102
pituitary peptides are responsible for?
maternal care and bonding
| ex: oxytocin
103
opioid peptides are responsible for?
reducing pain, and process feelings of well being (runner's high)
ex: beta-endrophinin
104
what is an agonist?
mimics or enhances the effect of a NT
105
what is an antagonist?
blocks or decreases the effects of a NT
106
agonist drug effects
```
increase synthesis
promote release
block reuptake or degradation
block presynaptic auto receptors
activate postsynaptic receptors
```
107
antagonist drug effects
```
decrease synthesis
prevent storage
block release
activate presynaptic autoreceptors
block postsynaptic receptors
```
108
what is a psychoactive drug?
any drug with psychological effects and passes through the blood brain barrier to directly affect the brain
can be abusive or therapeutic
109
APOE SNP predicts a persons risk of ______
alzheimers
110
when does a zygote become an embryo?
after 2 weeks
111
when does an embryo become a fetus?
after 10 weeks
112
ectoderm gives rise to what?
nervous system
skin
hair
113
mesoderm gives rise to what?
connective tissue
muscle
bone
blood vessels
114
endoderm gives rise to what?
internal organs
115
what are the stages of neurodevelopment?
1. cell proliferation
- neurogenesis and gliogenesis
2. migration
3. differentiation
4. circuit formation
- axon growth and synaptogenesis
5. apoptosis
6. refinement of connections
- synaptic pruning and rearrangement
116
embryonic cells are...
totipotent
117
neural cell are...
pluripotent
118
neural progenitor cells are..
unipotent or oligopotent
119
what is radial glia?
special glia that radiate from the ventricular layer to the outer edge of cerebral cortex, serving as a pathway for migrating neurons
120
what is fasciculation?
axons growing in the same direction sticking together via cell adhesion molecules
121
what does the neural tube differentiate into?
rostral-caudal
| dorsal-ventral
122
what is the neurotrophin released to prevent cell death via postsynaptic terminal?
neuron growth factor (NGF)
123
reticularist doctrine
by: GOLGI
| no individual cells they are all an interconnected web
124
neuron doctrine
by: CAJAL
| yes there are individual cells and they are the basis of function
125
passive conduction
axon that has no myelin
126
salutory conduction
jumps from node to node and is much quicker
127
who is associated with spinal reflexes?
francois magendle
| charles bell
128
who is associated with phrenology?
franz josef gall
| johann carper spurzheim
129
who is associated with localization of function?
fritsch and hitzig
