Exam 3 Flashcards
What are the three main changes that occur during adolescents that shape identity?
1) puberty
2) cognitive
3) social
why do puberty, cognitive changes, and social changes create a change in identity for adolescents?
- changes on the outside promote changes on the inside.
- cognitive changes, like being able to think about consequences, and multiple versions of themselves also shift the way adolescents think about their identity.
- changes in social roles offer youth different options and decisions they didn’t have earlier on (occupation, family roles)
— social changes = changes in social roles
what are three approaches to understanding identity?
1) self conceptions
2) self esteem
3) sense of identity
What are self-conceptions?
the ways individuals think about and characterize themselves, traits and attributes
what changes occur in the ‘content’ and ‘structure’ of self-conceptions across development?
- more absract
- more differentiated
- better organized
e.g., a 5 year old thinks more concretely, and immediate to their environment..
adolescents can describe themselves in multiple situations, and express multiple dimensions of personality across different social situations.
more complex ways of thinking about the self
What does differentiation of the self concept mean?
personality is expressed in different ways in different situations.
What are three ‘selfs’ that are organized and integrated into the self concept during adolescence?
1) actual self - who they really are
2) ideal self - who they would like to be
3) feared self - who they fear becoming
T/F
As changes in adolescents self concept happens, they become more able to distinguish between authentic vs. false self?
true.
where are adolescents most likely to try out different versions of their authentic self?
Social media
- use social media to try on different versions of themself..
- not deliberately ‘false self’
What is false self behaviour?
acting in a way that one knows is inauthentic
Where is false self behaviour most likley to occur?
where is it least likely to occur?
most likely to happen in dating situations
least likely to happen around close friends
What did researchers Michikyan et al (2015) find regarding social media and how adolescents represent themselves online?
- adolescents with less coherent sense of self tend to portray themselves in a false way on social media (false self exploration)
- were likely to portray different versions of themselves / explore different identities on social media.
What is the 5 factor model of personality?
5) Openness to experience
6) Concienscientousness
7) Extraversion
8) Agreeableness
9) Neuroticism
T/F
big 5 personality traits are influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors
ya
what is personality linked with in early childhood?
temparment
For antisocial behaviour… what might their big 5 profile look like?
extraversion = high
agreeableness = low
conscientiousness = low
neuroticism = high
openness (curiosity) = high
in the transition from adolescents to adulthood you become: less extraverted, more conscientious, more agreeable, more emotionally stable
yaaaaa
In addition to the Big 5, what other personality model is used to predict adolescent psychopathology?
SURPS model
What are the 4 distinct personality traits that SURPS measures?
1) hopelessness
2) anxiety sensitivity
3) impulsivity
4) sensation seeking
what have SURPS traits hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, and sensation seeking been associated with an increase of in adolescents?
substance use disorders
What did Lambe et al., (2024) find that the SURPS model predicted?
bullying involvement (from traits hopelessness and impulsivity)
high hopelessness tend to be more involved in bullying victimization.
high impulsivity was linked to bullying perpetration + substance use.
.
Self esteem timeeee
what sorts of changes do we see in self esteem during adolescents?
- lots of daily fluctuations in adolescents
- self esteem fluctuates the MOST during early adolescents
–> there is a dip, but levels out. - becomes more stable in adulthood (not as influenced by day-to-day events)
When are problems with self image most apparent?
in early adoelscence
What are the three aspects of SELF IMAGE?
1) self esteem ( how pos/ neg you feel about yourself)
2) self consciousness ( how much you worry about your self image)
3) self image stability (how much you feel your self image changes day to day)
What differences do we see in self image between early adolescents and older adolescents
- early adolescents self esteem is the lowest (highly self conscious and self image stability is super shakey)
When does self esteem recover after a decline?
mid-adolescents
What are 3 factors that influence the fluctuations in self image during early adolescents?
1) egocentrism
- painfully aware of others reactions to their behaviour
2) more socially active
- understanding of ‘social games’ becomes more nuanced..
- learn that people can play games, its not always possible to tell what others are thinking
- social networks are valued more.
3) more emphasis on peers’ opinions of them
- peers take center stage. most interested in peer opinions
What did a meta analysis by orth et al (2018) find in a longitudinal study of the development of self esteem across the lifespan?
- temporary dip or decline in self-esteem in early adolescence
- recover around 15 (mid-adolescence)
- early adulthood lots of increase.
- then it PLATEAUS
- then a steep decline later in life :/
What are examples of DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS of self esteem?
- physical self-esteem
- self esteem about relationships
- how any friends
- how socially adept
- good student
- sports
what dimensions of self esteem is most predictive of an adolescents ‘overall’ self esteem?
physical self esteem (body image)
What are some gender differences in self esteem?
girls are more susceptible to changes in self esteem
- girls generally have lower physical self esteem than boys
- boys have higher physical self esteem
what are some ethnic differenes in self esteem?
- ethnic minorities who are lower SES suffer greater consequences in self esteem
What are 3 predictors of high self esteem?
1) success in school
2) social approval
3) social support
What is the main predictor of low self esteem, risk of emotional and behavioural problems, and risk of victimization?
peer approval
can also create involvement with deviant peer activities (to cope with problems of self esteem)
Eriksons theory of identity development….
boooooooo
what was it about
he beleived that individuals move thorugh a series of 8 psychosocial crisises in life.
each one builds on the previous one
must resolve each crisis that occurs or else they get stuck..
what was the key to resolving psychosocial crisis according to Erikson?
interactions with others.
by responding to interactions with others they choose an identity that fits and represents who they are.
Eriksonnnnn
how are adolescents identity a reflection of society?
(her spin on his theory?)
adolescents get their social ques from their environment.
important to let adolescents try on identities they feel representative of their authentic self.
What erikson psychosocial stage is adolescents?
Identity vs. Role Confusion
key to resolving = adolescents identity is the result of a mutual recognition between the young person and society…?
ahhh oh.. this is the “key to resolving crisis is based on interactions with others. by responding to interactions with others they choose an identity that fits and represents who they are”
T/F gender minority yout struggle with wellbeing when they are in environments where they cant act in accordance with their identity
ya
Why is there a prolonged identity crisis (adolescents psychosocial stage) today?
- increased options in North America
- adolescents interact with different environments trying to figure out who they are.
- the more available alternatives, the more difficult it is to establish an identity
the course of identity development varies by _______ and _________
culture and historical era
What is psychosocial moratorium?
“Time out” from excessive responsibilities and obligations
defines the period when you put a hold on adult obligations and responsibilities to allow for self responsibility
– adolescents sometimes need a longer period of time to figure out identity before entering into adult roles
What does psychological moratorium / psychosocial moratorium (idk she wrote it both ways) allow youth to do?
experiment with different roles
who accesses psychological moratorium the most…. who is it not available to?
- luxury of the affluent privileged youth
- differs as a function of SES
- working class has to work
What are 3 problems in identity development
1) identity diffusion
2) identity foreclosure
3) negative identity
what is identity diffusion?
- characterized by incoherent, incomplete sense of self.
- linked to social media study
- incoherant sense of self more likely to potray self in false way on social media
- constantly exploring new identities and not coming to a coherent sense of self
- (aka always in identity crisis)
What is identity foreclosure?
bypassing any exploration either willingly or unwillingly
- don’t consider range of alternatives
- may prematurely commit themselves to particular role
- one arbitrary identity as final identity
what is negative identity?
select identity that is completely undesirable ot parents and social environment
- would rather be bad than nobody at all
Healthy identity development involves what 2 important processes?
commitment and exploration.
varying degrees of ‘commitment’ and ‘exploration’ give rise to 4 different identity statuses..
what are?
(James Marcia)
1) identity achievement
2) moratorium
3) identity foreclosure
4) identity diffusion
Descrive identity achievement
- high commitment
- high exploration
- gold standard
- coherant sense of identity
- lots of research
- finalized identity based on interactions
Describe Identity Foreclosed
- high commitment
- low exploration
- committed to an identity without exploring
- e.g., strict parents set out a role for you / high performing athletes / religious
Describe identity diffusion
- low exploration
- low commitment
- isnt trying to figure out who they are.
- don’t care / want to figure it out
describe identity moratorium
- high exploration
- low commitment
- according to both Erikson and Marcia this type of identity status is a form of CRISIS.
- individual hasn’t made a decision who they want to be
What is one of the defining characteristics of individuals who have achieved a coherent sense of identity?
(sukhawathanakul et al., 2020)
- they approach life’s decisions with a sense of agency which increases into the transition to young adulthood and is enhanced with emotional support..
- sense of purpose and self mastery
- status is contingent on positive social relationships
– (peers / romantic) = sense of agency and ability to overcome challenges in their life is high - these social enviornemtns allow you to safely try out new identities
What did a study by Crocetti et al (2013) show regarding externalizing problems and identity development?
- adolescents who have extenralizing problems have more difficulties developing a coherant and stabel sense of identity
- incoherant sense of self is also related to externalizing problems.
externalizing problems are associated with high risk adolescent boys who have disorganized identity that is characterized by LOW COMMITMENT and MODERATE SELF EXPLORATION
- externalizing problems = agresssion / conduct problems
What are some challenges to studying identity?
- hard to measure
- identity is generally not established before 18
-individuals may change identities (particularly during adolescents) - university may prolong psychosocial moratorium
- contrary to Erikson, identity doesn’t just occur in steps.. people more in and out of identity exploration with different events (e.g,, a baby) - more fluid
Autonomy isn’t just about acting independently it’s….
also about feeling independent
How does ethnic minority deveopment differ from non-ethnic?
- starts with an unquestioning view of oneself.
- this view is then displaced or upset by a crisis
— e.g., prejudice..
— become aware of unrepresenation
— feels different.. - then, a period of exploration after crisis.
— context has a big influence (ethnic composition of peers, school, neighbourhood) - affected by the extent to which they have contract with other ethnic minority groups
What was the impact of residential school on identity development?
- erodes cultural identity
- pervasive discriminatino toward indigenous people
What did Bombay et al (2014) find the effects of discrimination were on descendants of residential school survivors?
- higher rates of health and social problems
- this effect is exacerbated by discrimination
- history of residential school = more responsive to discrimination
– more at risk for experiencing depressive symptoms
– threatens identity.
what is something that buffers against depressive symptoms in response to discrimination among residential school survivors (their lineage too)
- cultural identity
- even though it can be impared across generations, the process of rebuilding cutlrual identity and pride is protective against discrimination
What are the four steps in the ‘pathway’ that link perceived discrimination to antisocial behaviour?
1) percieved discrimination
2) depression and alienation
3) affiliation with antisocial peers
4) risky and antisocial behaviour
high discrimination is related to later conduct problems, depression, lower achievement in schools. could lead to affiliation with deviant peers - because belonging in some way.
What are the three aspects of racial identity that influence the effects of discrimination?
1) racial centrality ( how important ethnic identity is to defining self concept)
2) private regard (how you feel about other members of ethnic group / how you adapt to experiences of discrimination)
3) public regard ( how you think others view your ethnic group / e.g., how victoria treats asian people )
Discrimintion can increase risk of psycholoigcal distres… but what does it depend on?
how much they feel discriminated against and the extent to which they are adversely effected by it
Adolescence aren’t completely autonomous - for example:
less autonomous financially but also more emotionally independent
Adolescence is a time of growing ______ and _______, and its a ______ process
Independence, autonomy, lifelong
What three kinds of changes does autonomy relate to?
Biological, cognitive, social
What autonomous BIOLOGICAL changes happen in adolescence?
-puberty changes emotional relationships
-parents may try to restrain autonomy
What autonomous COGNITIVE changes happen in adolescence?
-Better intellectual abstraction
-can make decisions for self (social, moral)
What autonomous SOCIAL changes happen in adolescence?
-changes in social roles
-can work work, drive, go to post-secondary
-these opportunities call for questions of independence
What are the tree types of autonomy?
Cognitive, emotional, behavioural
What is cognitive autonomy?
Independant thoughts, value systems, political beliefs
What is behavioural autonomy?
Development of independent decision making
-can better avoid peer pressure
What is emotional autonomy?
-independent in oscilla relationships
-mostly relating to parents and how independent you are from them
What are some developmental changes in emotional autonomy?
-more reliance on peers for emotional support than parents
-compared to childhood: stop seeing parents as “all knowing”
What did past perspectives believe about the development of emotional autonomy?
Past perspectives believed we had a need to “break away”
-ex. psychoanalytic theory suggest that separation is a form of detachment:
-brought about by emergence of sexual impulses (inevitable)
-not supported empirically tho
-ado and parent relationships are quite close
Emotional autonomy is more of a _________ of family relationships rather than disruptive detachment
transformation
-ado can be emotionally autonomous without being detached
What is a modern theory of emotional autonomy?
Individuation:
-progressive sharpening of independence
-dependencies traded for more mature
-complex understanding of the role of parents
(seen more as human, might keep things more private, draw line for aspects parents aren’t involved in
Explain the process of individuation
-change in cognitive representations of parents
-new balance accompanied by sense of personal autonomy and secured emotional attachment to parents
-its adaptive and healthy
-parenting practices facilitate smoother processes
what is something that is protective against distress related to discrimination?
- postivie feelings baout ones race and ethnicity
What is ethnic socialization?
the process by which parents teach their kids about ethnic identity
ethnic socialization may speed up ethnic identity development..
what three themes are involved?
1) understanding and valuing ones culture
2) dealing with racism
3) succeeding in mainstream society
- addressing these themes in the process of socialization can help young people incorporate their cultural identity
What is having a strong ethnic identity consistently associated with?
- self esteem
- stronger self efficacy
- better menthal health
What did Edwards et al ( 2023) find the main source of resilience against intergenerational transmission of ACEs in indigenous families?
culture identity
- shared language, traditional practices, belief systems, and active connection with culture
- cultural identity and social support buffer against intergenerational transmission of adverse childhood experience within indigenous families
What did Good et al (2021) find that the effect of cultural programs being integrated into schools for indigenous youth was?
- promote inclusion and strengthen cultural identity and resilience
- promotes cultural identity, self esteem and social bonding
- some schools are doing more than others.
- very effective
- .
identity, slide 33….
School based programs…
what are the three “inputs” to developing a school based program?
1) community sector = community member knowledge, time, and resources, elders wisdom
2) Education sector = support of principle and teachers - schools resources
3) Arts based healing program = theoretical framework
What activities are involved in school based programs
1) song and dance
2) sewing regalias, making drums
3) native language lyrics
4) and showcase gala - what they are working on
what are the outcomes of school programs to build cultural identity and resilience?
1) personal development ( self esteem, confidence, happiness)
2) cultural development ( new cultural knowledge, connection to cultural identity)
3) social development ( social bonds in school and community)
4) student engagement in school based programming
5) perpetuating cultural knowledge
define multiethnic adolescents lol
adolescents whose parents are not from the same ethnic or racial group
How is developing a consistent ethnic identity challenging for multiethnic adolescents?
- change racial identity over time
- similar to immigrant youth
- differences in peer affiliation
— e.g., stability and change in racial and ethnic homophily is unclear…..
— which means they move between friendships a lot (inconsistent)
what is racial / ethnic homophily?
the tendency to form friendships with similar others…
are there differenes in multiethnic group in early development socio-cognitve and timing?
yaaa.
e.g., how much language is being used int he household
what is gender identity
ones sense of self as male, female, or transgender
what is sexual orientation
whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex or both
what is gender-role behaviour
the extent to which individual behaviour is traditionally masculine or feminine
should gender identity, sexual orientation and gender role behaviour be viewed as fluid or fixed?
fluuuuiiidd
what is the gender intensification hypothesis?
- feel pressure to act in ways that girls or boys are supposed to act.
- beliefs about gender roles become more flexible as they get older
- need to conform to particular gender
- increases during adolescents
- beliefs about gender roles more inflexible
DOes the environment or biology have a stronger effect on gender role behaviour?
environment
i feel evil
what did yu et al,, (2017) find about adolescence conformity to gender norms?
- boys and girls who behave in gender typical ways are more accepted than their peers whose behaviour is more gender atypical
- social costs of behaving in gender-atypical ways are way greater for boys
- girls are “allowed” to behave masculine, boys are strongly discouraged form displaying feminine traits
- true across cultures
What are the results of parents being supportive of autonomy (or not) and adolescence mood?
-when parent is supportive, mood goes up
-more parent psychological control = negative mood
What is one of the first aspects of emotional autonomy?
de-idolize parents
-occurs late adolescence/young adulthood
Explain the importance of maintaining the connection between parents and kids when they begin to gain autonomy
-balance autonomy and connectedness with parents has positive implications on friendships and romantic relationships
-healthy (maintain closeness) vs. unhealthy transition (conflict alienation
-strong emotional autonomy +strong emotional connection = good
What are two theories (factors) that trigger individuation?
Biological: puberty alters how child is viewed
- more reports of bickering
-it dips but then goes back up
Social Cognitive: movements towards autonomy due to cognitive development, recognize that they can have different opinions from parents
.
What is healthy individuation and positive mental health fostered by?
close, not distant, family relationships
When is adolescence mental health best? (autonomy)
When their desire for autonomy matched their parents willingness to grant autonomy
-conditions that encourage both individuation and emotional closeness facilitate autonomy
Autonomy: authoritative parenting vs. authoritarian
Authoritative: fosters independence, responsibility, and self esteem
-give + take, able to adapt based on needs of child
Authoritarian: interferes with individuation
-become dependant on parents
permissive: not dependant on parents - rely on peers to help with decisions
What are two cognitive improvements related to reward developments:
- changes in saliency of rewards (less likely to favour decisions that prioritize short time rewards
- changes in self regulation (ex. impulse control; balance between rewards and cost)
Cognitive changes contributes to greater ability to behave _______
independently
-changes in decision-making abilities
Are parents, or peers more influential as behavioural autonomy changes?
-in some satiations, peers opinions are more influential, but in other situations, parents opinions are more powerful
What are three explanations for differences in when ado are more likely to conform to peers
*more influenced by peers in middle (14-15), then declines
-peer pressure is stronger in middle ado
-suseptability is constant
-more susceptible bc of heightened orientation towards peers
-peing around peers changes biology (brain regions experience reward when around peers
what does SURPS stand for?
The Substance Use Risk Profile Scale
Intimacy is the development of characteristics that involve… what?
- self disclosure
- emotional disclosure
- trust
- concern for one another
“caring, being daring, sharing” lol
When does intimacy begin to emerge?
adolescents
Why does intimacy emerge in adolescents?
peers become more important
How does biological changes in adoelscents influence intimacy?
puberty
- sexual impulses, provokes new interst in sex, development of romantic relationships
- those things require intimate discussions
how do cognitive changes influence intimacy in adolescence?
- adolescents have a more sophisticated conception of social relationships
- better communication skills
- more self-aware
- can establish and maintain relationships with greater empathy
- sensitivity and self-disclosure..
- understand loneliness in a more complex way
What type of parenting is behavioural autonomy associated with?
authoritative parenting
-less susceptible to negative peer influence - sometimes more susceptible to positive peer
What are ethnic differences observed about autonomy?
some ethnic differences observed when youth expect autonomy (ex among asian ado)
-but autonomy increases are associated with closeness
-asian tend to expect autonomy later
How to changes in social roles affect adolescents intimacy?
- behavioural independence
- more time to hangout with peers alone
- intimate discussions online or in person
- they almost look like adults –> might make parents to disclose more information
What are some sex and birth order differences in expectations of autonomy?
-older siblings may feel that younger siblings have more autonomy
-depends on household though
-maybe parenting style changes/evolves form one child to next
What is Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development
- emphasized the social aspects of growth
- transformation in relationships with others
Study by Kiag et al about developmental changes and correlates of autonomy in asian American adolescence
Adolescents who have supportive parents with autonomy = moderating and protective effect on their mental health
-specifically asian American kids with supportive mothers who support autonomy report less depression
idk random thing I wrote on slide about parenting and autonomy:
-how parents are socialized to treat their sons and daughters effects their autonomy
-trad families might grant more autonomy to son
-different gendered roles with household chores
According to Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development, why is the ability to fulfill needs accumulative over time?
- your experiences influence the way you can develop intimacy
- frustrations and satisfactions of earlier periods influence later relationships and developing sa ense of identity
What are three trends in adolescents beliefs: (cog autonomy) (like ways they think)
- ado beliefs become more abstract
- beliefs become increasingly rooted in general principles
- beliefs become founded in their own values. Values may be influences by parents, but they own it as their own opinion
In Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development, what do feelings of security versus anxiety mean?
each stage of development has different needs.
adolescents’ needs either lead to security (satisfied), or they lead to frustration (lack of needs being met)
Sullivants progression of needs theory:
what is the interpersonal need that occurs from age 0-2/3
need for contact with people, need for tenderness and mothering touch
What re some associated cognitive changes with the development of cognitive autonomy?
-advanced though
-hypotheticals allow you to take different perspectives
-reason in logical ways to help make decisions
-different political, religious views
Sullivant’s progression of needs theory:
what need arises in early childhood (2 - 6)
need for adult participation in child’s play
In regards to moral development during ado, what is reasoning?
how individuals think about moral dilemmas
Sullivant’s progression of needs theory:
what is the need that rises around middle childhood (6-10)
need for peer playmates, need for accceptance into peer society groups
Sullivant’s progression of needs theory:
what is the need that arises in PREADOLESCENCE (8/10 - 12/14)
need for intimacy and consensual validation in same-sex “chumships”
the need for intimacy EMERGES during this stage.
it is satisfied through SAME SEX friendships
In regards to moral development during ado, what are behaviours?
Behaviours that call for moral judgements
-ex. prosocial behaviour: acts people engage in to help others
What is the dominant theoretical viewpoint in the study of moral reasoning grounded in?
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (moral development progresses in a step-like system)
Sullivant’s progression of needs theory:
what is the need that arises in EARLY ADOLESCENCE? (12/14 - 17/18)
- need for sexual contact, need for intimacy with OTHER SEX partner.
- need is integrated with more sexual impulses and desires.
- focus is on OTHER SEX peers for intimacy
How do researchers assess individuals moral reasoning
-researchers assess individuals moral reasoning by examining their responses to hypothetical dilemmas about difficult real world situations
-ethics make it hard bc can’t put them in squid games lol
-so hypothetical is used
Sullivant’s progression of needs theory:
what is the need that arises in late adolescence (17/18)
need for intergration into adult society
define attatchment
a strong and enduring emotional bond
What are Kohlberg’s three levers of moral reasoning?
- preconventional moral reasoning
- conventional moral reasoning
- postconventional moral reasoning
(see future cards for defs)
*in order to progress to next stage you must be ready, and you can get stuck
.
are past relationships important to attatchmetn
yaaaaaa
what are the four kinds of infant attachment according to Mary Ainsworth (strange situation)
- secure
- anxious-avoidant
- anxious - resistant
- disorganized
how many types of insecure attatchment are there?
3
how would baby react with secure attatchment in strange situation?
- sad when parent leaves
- calms donw
- happy to see parent when comes back
how do anxious-avoidant babies react in the strange situation?
- indifferent when mom leaves
- dont give a fuck if they are there or not
- don’t notice when mom returns
- idgaf bitch
What is Kohlberg’s pre conventional moral reasoning stage?
First stage
-worrying about punishment/reward
-kids mostly just worry about doing right and wrong
how do anxious resistent babies act in strange situation?
- cry when mom leaves
- does not calm down during experiment
- resists efforts to comfort when mom comes back
what does disorganized attatchment look like for kids in the strange situation
- inconsistent reactions
- sometiems more avoidant
- sometimes more resistant
- characterized by anxiety and distress
- maybe inconsistent parenting
What is Kohlberg’s conventional moral reasoning stage?
Second stage
-Following societal rules and norms
-early to late ado, based more on social development
-right and wrong becomes what’s socially expected
What is Kohlberg’s postconventional moral reasoning stage?
Third + final stage
-most abstract and advanced
-social rules are more subjective
-what’s wrong can be right is some situations
-can sympathize or understand why someone does something wrong
What has research found about moral reasoning?
That it doesn’t always match moral behaviour
ex. kids know bullying is wrong but some do it anyways
-contextual factors influence how someone acts with moral dilemmas in the real world
What is moral disengagement?
Have a tendency to rationalize immoral behaviour as being legitimate
ex. bullying behaviours - “they deserved it”
What did Wang (haha) et al find with their longitudinal study about bullying and moral disengagement in ado?
Early levels of moral disengagement is predictive of future bullying
-participating in moral disengagement self perpetuates and can get worse over time (related to cognitive dissonance)
-ex. agro kid might “deserve” it, or theyre weak and just trying to toughen them up
how does initial attachment experiences form an “internal working model”
- they form the basis for a more general model of interpersonal relationships..
Does prosocial become more mature with age?
noooooooo haha just kidding YES
-we begin to devalue prosocial acts done for self-serving reasons and value those done out of genuine empathy
-being kind, honest, help community
Are changes in prosocial behaviours during adolescence consistent?
No - fluctuates
individuals who are high in ________________ (insecure attachment) are at risk for depressive and anxious symptomatology
rejection sensitivity
What are two examples of civic engagement and why would kids vs. older do it?
-politics
-volunteerism (social responsibility)
-kids might do volunteering etc. bc of some external motivation (like needing volunteer hours to grad)
-older, do it bc you know its good to do
In securely attatched children, what is there “working model” of themself?
positive and loved
in avoidant children, what is there “working model” of themself?
unloved and rejected
How does ado political thinking change?
-political thinking becomes more abstract, independent, and principled
-influenced by social context
>is it talked about at home, school, peers? education?
in resistant (anxious) attatched children, waht is their “working model” of themself?
angry and confused
What is the “Cyberball” game..
- computer game that measures adolescents response to social exclusion
- participant thinks they are playing the game with two other people, then players stop passing ball..
- measured via the activation of anterior cingulate cortex
- brain more activated when being excluded
- participants whos brain lit up to being reject more likely to experience depression and anxiety
How might kids from higher economic backgrounds have a better understanding of social systems?
-understand homelessness and how one might end up there
-vs. poor kids might think its their families own fault
How do religious beliefs change across ado?
-become more abstract, principled, and independent
-form a system of personal religious beliefs rather than relying on teachings of their parents
WHy is it hard to study attatchment in adolescents
- have to study retrospectivly
- adult attatcment interview
= structured interview to assess an individuals past attachment history and “internal working model of relationships
What are two interconnected components of religious beliefs?
Religiosity: relating to one religious group, contributes to identity development
Spirituality: purpose in life - ability to think in more abstract ways and question purpose in life
-there are differing impacts like identity development vs. cog autonomy
-may become more oriented towards spiritual than religious practices (western)
Early experiences give a ‘competitive edge’ to healthy development but it depends on intervening facts…
yaaaa..
adolescents who engage in problem behaviours can display problems in behaviours.
secure attachment - more socially competent than insecure peers.
the quanlity of infant attatchment is linked to adult romantic relationships through effects on ___________________ in childhood and adolescents
social development
security at what age predicts adult romantic relationship quality
16
what did Woodin et al (2016) find regarding the development of adolescents with secure attachment styles..
also, can attachment styles change depending on context? give an example
found secure attatchment =
- soically competent
- more successful in school
- less likely to engage in substance use
- better adjustment
yes can change depending on context
- aggressive contexts
- risky behaviours
- aggressive environments –> engage in heavy substance use –> more intimate partner violence
How does intimacy change the nature of friendships in adolescence?
- conflicts start emerging in adolescents with friends
How does religiosity change across the adolescent years?
-less attending church
-religiosity declines, spirituality increases
About _____ of youth surveyed see themselves as “very” or “pretty” spiritual. It varied considerably by country.
1/3rd
- spirituality changes ofer the course of life
-start to see religion and spirituality as different but related
____% of youth say they have become more spiritual in the last 2-3 years
55%
Various aspects of ado’s spirituality has changed. _____ say they have more of a sense that life has meaning or purpose
2/3rds
_____% say they are spiritual and religious
34%
What did Good et al find about the stability of ado spirituality/religiosity?
Most become more spiritually interested, less participate in institutional religion
-more personal practice like meditation - connect with people and nature
-increaes between grade 11 and 12
In a healthy youth survey (2008), it was found that more kids identify as ___, and ____ participate in religious services and meetings
not religious at all, dont at all
The healthy youth survey (2008) also found that it was ______ between spiritual values playing a role in their lives
half and half - 48% no, 52% yes
Compared to non-religious ado, religious ado are _____ adjusted
better
-maybe bc religious ado have other pos influences on their lives that promote positive development
-religious beliefs might be linked to no delinquent or sexual behaviour
Did Fishbein et al (2016) find that yoga was an effective intervention foe high-risk ado?
-no :( didn’t really find an effect
-other study found some positive outcomes though
Adolescent sexuality is influenced by:
-physical changes of puberty
-emerging cognitive capabilities (introspection and reflection about sexual behaviour
-concerns about new social roles
what do older vs. younger adolescence have conflicts over in adolescence?
older = private matters
- e.g., “ i dont feel like you’re offering enough support / being a good friend”
younger = public matters
- e.g., embarrassment
what are some downsides of developing intimacy in adolescence?
- concerns about rejection
what are some gender differences in challenges related to intimacy in adolescence?
girls show a pronounced increase in jealosy over their friends during adolescence
- especially true for girls who are high risk for rejection sensitivity
- high in rejection sensitivity respond more negatively to peer rejection
- more jealousy in friendships
Why does sexuality become a more salient issue during ado?
puberty> hormones> sex drives> cognitive changes> capacity for individuals to think about sexuality, introspection, sexual experiences
why is there gender differences in intimacy?
socialization
why does quality of friendship increase in adolescence?
increase…
- more responsive to needs of friends
- better at resolving conflicts
- more pro-social and fair
- more sensitive to the feelings and needs of friends
- less controlling and more tolerant of friends’ individuality
What are the 4 stages of positive sexual development?
- Accepting ones body (ex. shape, size, attractiveness)
- Accepting ones feelings of sexual arousal as normal and appropriate
- Understanding that sexual activity is voluntary (consent)
- Practicing safe sex
Why are the stages of positive sexual development important?
bc it is important to distinguish what normal sexuality looks like without prejudice or biases
how does megacognition contribute to improved friendships in adolescence?
- can take a step back and look at own behaviour and see success / failures across different contexts
- increased theory of mind. being able to understand others thoughts and needs
friends resolve conflicts more frequentlyu by negotition or disengagement, not _________
coersion
girls have more intimate relationships in adolescence… what is a liability of this?
co-rumination
What does research about ado sexuality tend to be like?
Quite negative.
-adult perception of ado sexuality is bad
-research has focused on problematic aspects - precocious, unsafe
-received more attraction than normative aspects
what is co-rumination?
- can bring friends closer together
- more internalizing problems for both
do boys or girls have more intimate knowledge about their best friends?
both have equal degrees of knowledge
- mental health is tied to friends
- happy when friends are happy
- suffer more when not going well..
is a consequence of what?
intimacy..
maybe because of co-rumination
What is it important to pay attention to when looking at research about ado sexual activity?
-how researchers are defining ado sexuality
-often focus on intercourse
-should study the full stages of that sexual activity looks like
-ex. onset of sexual behaviour is influenced by how we word questions and ways in which we collect data
is intimacy absent for boys?
no.. just more of a conscious concern for girls
boys tend to be more activity oriented with friends
are girls or boys more likely to share their emotional state with their friends?
girls disclose more to friends
BUT - when boys are with their friends they are just as liley to share each others emotional states
Sullivan hypothesized that the targets of intimacy change over time…
what did he think?
1) that peers replace intimacy with parents
2) that other-sex peers replace intimacy with same-sex friends
Do most ado start with intercourse when it comes to the development of sexual activity? What is the order of sexual activity?
no - many follow similar sequence
-start with autoerotic behaviour (masterbation)
-moves towards sociolsexual behaviour with someone else (holding hands, kissing, oral etc)
how does research contradict Sullivans theory?
research shows that NEW targets of intimacy are ADDED to the old ones.
–> they don’t replace them.
- peer and family relationships are closely linked.
- quality of family relationships predict other relationships.
- more in align with attachment research
- .
Intimacy with parents and intimacy with peers is different… they serve different __________
purposes.
adolescents turn to different peole depending on the situation
is the average age of sex the same as the early age of sex?
no
-predictors of early age of sex includes a risk profile
-in other words: those who have earlier sexual debut are associated with a risk profile
what purpose does intimacy with peers serve?
- peers = own age, similar perspective and levels of expertise
what does lack of self disclosure + lack of disclosure from peers =
low social adjustment, low self esteem
strong gender segreation in adolescence occurs until wheeen.
middle adolescence
What percent of youth reported ever having sexual intercourse in BC
16%
But obvi there are individual differences
when do cross gender friendships begin to be important?
late adolescence
what has research shown about mixed gender friendships?
there is aprotective effect.
girls with boy friendships –> positive influence n body image
What are some risks associated with early onset of sexual intercourse?
-substance use
-conduct problems
-quality of family relationships (monitoring, disapproval)
-no religious beliefs
-low academic achievement
-family living situation
-maternal education
what percentage of Bc youth had been in a romantic relationship in the past year?
43%
what are three theories related to dating and the development of intimacy?
(have already been over 2)
- Sullivans theory of interpersonal development
- Attatchment theory
- Ecologial perspectives
WHat is the most common age for youth to have their sexual debut? Is this trend stable over the last couple decades? is it associated with psychological disturbance?
Age: 15/16
Stable: yes
Not associated w psychological disturbance (levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction are similar to other ado)
what theory of dating and development of intimacy focuses on establishing intimate relationships through same sex friendships first and then transitioning to romantic relationships?
Sullivans
what theory of dating and developing sayis that the quality of early relationships predicts later intimacy?
attatchment theory
which theory of dating and development of intimacy think that
romantic relationships need to be viewed in the social context that they occur in?
e.g., age norms, family-instability
ecological perspective
e.g., if you are in a school where everyone in your grade enters a romantic relationship, then you will too…
socially constructed..
and if you are socialized in a world where your parents expect you to date later, then you wont get into a relationship to align with your family values
What age is considered to be early onset for sexual debut?
age 13
-any research around maladjustment tends to focus on early onset
what does dating typically look like in early adolescence?
- group activities
- see them in a big group but not alone
- causal dating in couples
Is early and risky sexual activity associated with what?
Other psychological and behavioural factors associated with risk taking behaviours
BUT:
-depends on extent behaviour is seen as normative (social context)
-difficult to determine causation between early onset + other prob behaviours
-more consistent evidence for risky sex
What are early maturers more likely to do?
Have sex earlier
For boys, what makes them more likely to think about engaging in sexual activity?
rise in androgens (like testosterone)
What is girls sex drive influenced by, and what is the but?
sex drive influenced by androgens as well
BUT change in physical appearance and sexual activity are due to estrogen levels
serious invovlement in a steady realtionship involves more
intimate self disclosure
in late adolescence, intimacy is characterized by what
- emotinoal depth
- willingness to work through disagreeemnts
its not until adolescence that relationships start to be characterised by emotional depth and maturity
t/f
truuue ..
fostered by their willingness to acknowledge their partners perspective, work through disagreements, and analyze conflicts in pro social way.
ability to work through romantic conflict is liked to cognitive advancements
How does context play a role in sexual activity? Ex. social factors?
-girls and peers influence levels of sexual involvement
-if environment is less tolerant of sexual activity, peers will be less likely to engage in sexual behaviours
What are the three phases of romance?
1) discover an interst in socializing with potential romantic and sexual partners
– relationships usually last a few weeks
– usually about maintaining peer status
2) Move toward more meaningful dyadic relationships
– last about 6 months
– middle adolescence
– more casual / group context..
– clear idea of what being in a romantic relationship
3) Begin to think about the long-term survival and growth of romantic relationships
– last about a year
What type of parenting results in kids less likely to engage in sex at an early age?
Authoritative duhh
what makes the development of intimate relationships more complicated among LGBTQ youth?
stigma and stereogypes..
may find it difficult to develop intimate friendships due to fear of homophobic reactions from same sex peers
What is communication about sex between parents and children important for?
mitigating risky sexual behaviour - but doesn’t stop sexual activity in general. Just helps with safe sexual practices
entering a serious dating relationship at younger age “off time” is associated with what for girls?
- negative consequences
- more risk profile
- don’t necessarily have coping abilities to deal with conflict.
- sexual relationships early on contributes to risk
There is some evidence of impact of household composition (family dynamics) in association with sexual involvement, especially among _______
GURLS
is there a positive or negative impact of participating in mixed gender activity in group situations
positve
What age is considered an early starter for dating / “off time”
before 15
Ado who’s parents are going through a divorce, or girls in single parent households are more likely to do what?
More likely to be sexually active earlier than peers
BUT: may be due more to quality of family relationships than only family structure
do late bloomers have a pos or neg impact on dating
inconsistent
Adolescent romance has a powerful impact on ____________
emotional states
adolescents _________ and ___________ relationsihps trigger strong emotions
real and fantasized
What is a common trigger of adolescents first major depressive episode?
breakups
linked to onset of psychopathology
BUT vulnerability depends on individual differences (diathesis stress model)
What are 4 family influences that can contribute to early sexual activity?
- gender differences in social influences
- modeling of single parent mothers and dating
- need for intimacy and support outside of home (bc of problems in home)
- genetic component related to stress management (like early menarche could modify stress system)
if you are high in ______________ then ou may react more emotional to break ups opposed to those who are not
reaction sensitivity
what percentage of adolescence had been the victim of physical violence in their relationships
what percentage had been victim of online IPV?
8% physical
13% online (romantic cyberbullying)
what is the impact of agressive contexts on intimate partner violence?
agressive homes, where psychological control happens AND peer bullying = greater prevalence of IPV
are males or females more likely to be a victim of intimate partner violence?
both equally
What does having sexually active peers do?
Creates a normative standard that having sex is okay
-peers also can communicate directly about sex, with friends or with potential partners
8% of adolescence in gen pop report physical IPV. what percentage of LGBT youth?
14% (almost double…)
what are some other individual differences that impact the prevalence of IPV
- rural (more common)
- low ses
- gender minority youth
Victims to IPV have what sorts of outcomes
poorer adjustment
- psychosocial problems,
mental health
academic probs
substance usse
what are some protective factors against coercive control?
- friendships (support, advice, disclosure, identify problems, empower to get out)
- parents (help recognize it)
- increase in abstract thinking
- developmental gains
- people who report more SELF MASTERY = related to lower IPV
When does intimate partner violence start, when does it peak?
(morgan & sukhawathanakul)
starts in adolescence.. peaks in late adolescence
Is sexual socialization different for boys and girls??
Yes
early sexuality is seen different for boys and girls
Boys = recreational - talk about first sexual encounter for peer approval
Girls = intimacy + risk of pregnancy, expected to be in love
Sex differences ______ with age between boys and girls
Narrow
-ex. more similar in motives for having sex, more emotional, sexual liberation
Youth in higher grades are more likely to identify as a sexual _____
minority
-higher percentage of ppl are gay in grade 12 compared to grade 9
there are 4 different trends in IPV trajectories from adolescence (12-18) to early adulthood (18-24)
what are
1) Decreasing (61%)
– better able to recognize conflict and abuse
2) Stable (2%)
– no change in rates of IVP
3) Increasing then Decreasing (27%)
4) High increasing (10%)
– minority..
– keeps reporting high levels of physical + relational violence
What is the percentage of condom (or other barrier) use in BC youth, and has it increased or decreased?
57% YIKES and its decreasing…
is relational violence IPV?
yup..
covert coercieve control
what does coercieve control include?
- technologial surveillance
– (now being included in definition of IPV_
– includes share location, read tests, passwords, moderating social media. - emotional manipulation
- control what they do / who they see
Now, pregnancy rates in youth are ____and have _____. Why?
Lower, plateaued
-1% reported ever being or causing a pregnancy
-likely bc of better contraception (like IUD) and other accessible methods
What are some ways that coercieve control can happen in gender minory youth relationships?
Woulfe & goodman (2020)
- threats outing thme
- invalidation of sexual and gender minory status (denying / attacking identity)
- using slurs / derogatory language
- isolating them from community
What would be some reasons for not using contraception?
stigma, concerns about health implications, no access to info, attitudes about condoms, cost, accessibility, sex ed, religion, abstinence
What is the percentage of condom use during oral sex?
19% womp womp
Examples of power and control (broadly)
- coersion and threats
- intimidation
- emotional abuse
- isolation
- minimizing
What percent of youth have had an STI? What about non-binary?
1%, 3% nonbinary??
How are youth getting sexual health info?
school, peers, fam, internet
Why is accessible and reliable sexual health info important?
bc youth who found that the info they were given was useful they were more likely to use a condom
-NB youth are least likely to know where to go for reliable sex info - sex ed at school is less likely to meet their needs
adolescent relationships are ________
fragile
- frequent break ups
- shorter relationship duration (<1 year)
In the past year, ____% of youth experienced verbal sexual harassment, and _____% experienced physical sexual harassment
45%, 30%
-also students in higher grades were more likely to have been sexually harassed in the past 12 months
What does effective sex ed do and involve?
- it can reduce ado likelihood of having unsafe sex, but does NOT reduce likelihood of having sex
-not only teaching art safe sex, but also how to avoid unwanted sex and unintentional sex
-talking about dynamics of sex is important
-talking not only about different diff contraception, but increasing motivations to engage in safe sex
-changing norms/attitudes of peers and ado
Why is a functional ( but still bad) use of covert control used in adolescent relationships
last ditch effort to preserve relationships.
- might use because relationships are unstable
- physical control results in relationship disillusionment
- coervice control = less easy to see something is wrong
What did Catallozzi et al (2011) find regarding control in adolescent relationships?
- controlling behaviours are more common than overt aggression
- controlling behaviour = 35%
(opposed to physical or sexual aggression)
= control is used to maintain relationships
- Risk factor = being younger and witnessing parental domestic violence
– associated with increased episodes of control from partners
What did research about abstinence only education reveal?
-abstinence only did not predict lower pregnancy rates
-did not delay sexual activity
-did not reduce rates of STI
-comprehensive sex education was more effective
What did a study by Ha et al (2019) show that withholding intimacy predict?
- withholding pattern predicted more PHYSICAL intimate partner violence
- control tactic
- but predicted more IPV than coercive control…
Adolescents datin gbehaviour is often shaped by _________
scripts
How are qualities of adolescents relationships correlated?
relationships at home related to rel. with peers and related to romantic partners
