Exam 1 Flashcards
What are physical changes that accompany sexual maturation? (rapid growth, development of primary and secondary sex characteristics)?
Puberty
does pubety have heterogeneity (variability) in the age of onset and rate of change?
yes
What system is responsible for jumpstarting puberty & associated biological changes?
the endocrine system
What does the endocrine system specifically do?
produces, circulates, and regulates hormone levels in the body
T/F
All hormones that influence puberty are already present in the body. AKA there are no new hormones activated at puberty
Truuuuuuuuu
What do endocrine glands secrete?
hormones
what does the hormonal feedback look (HPG axis) do?
acts like a thermostat to regulate hormone secretion
(increases or decrease hormones based on set point).
what does the HPG axis stand for?
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
when hormones get to a high enough level the __________ will tell it to stop
hypothalamus
at puberty…. which part of the HPG axis becomes less sensitive?
the hypothalamus
the hypothalamus inhibits the ________ unless sex hormone levels fall below a set point
pituitary gland
what hormones is the hypothalamus specifically monitoring
androgrens and estrogens
when signaled by the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland signals the _____ to release more sex hormones
(this maintains the correct set point)
gonads
when signaled by the pituatiry gland the ___________ (testes in males and ovaries in females) release sex hormones
gonads
the increase of what brain chemical stimulates the onset of pubety?
Kisspeptin
Hershey’s kisses.
puberty is stimulated by _______ and supressed by ________
stimulated by LEPTIN and supressed by MELATONIN
How does Leptin stimulate puberty?
- leptin stimulates kisspeptin…
- it lets your brain know how much fat is present in body. (more fat = earlier puberty)
- rising levels of leptin signals hypothalamus to stop inhibiting puberty.
What is the theory on light? (melatonin and kisspeptin)
melatonin supresses kisspeptin. melatonin is lower when its light. it has been theorized that the amount of light that children are exposed to may influence the onset of puberty.
= kids closer to the equator go through puberty faster
= blue light from computers make kids go through puberty earlier.
what is adrenarche?
the maturation of adrenal glands.
–> leads to physical somatic changes
why is puberty an increased time of stress?
the adrenal gland regulates the stress hormone cortisol, so puberty manages our sensitivity to stress.
it makes adolescence more responsive to stress
this is why it’s a period of increased vulnerability to mental health onset.
more cortisol = more vulnerability
study that tried to measure sensitivity to stress increases during puberty
longitudinal study… made people in childhood and adolescents do a public speaking task.
found that cortisol levels differed both WITHIN and BETWEEN individuals.
(meaning that individuals were more stressed, and as a group they were more stressed, than childhood)
What are some contexts that affect the timing of puberty?
- regions of the world
- socioeconomic status
- historical era (secular trend of onset puberty)
- ethnic group
(an example of this is the age of onset for menarche) - differs around the world.
New Guinea = 15
US & Canada = 12
the age of menarche has _______ significantly over the past 150 years, in a __________ trend
DECLINED, SECULAR TREND
what are some reasons why the age of menarche has declined?
synthetic chemicals, better nutrition, better sanitation
T/F higher BMI is linked to earlier age of menarchy?
true
What does somatic development during puberty look like?
- adolescent growth spurt
- “peak height velocity” - can grow at the same rate as a toddler.
- Asynchronicity in growth = that is why bodies look out of proportion (arms / legs frow first, then torso, then shoulders)
- sex differences in ratio of muscle and fat
(body fat increases more for girls / muscle for boys).
Do girls or boys reach the peak of their growth spurt first?
GIRLS.
girls = age 12
boys = 14ish
is there a relationship between the age at which puberty begins and the rate of pubertal development?
no, it varies alot
during puberty, body dissatisfaction for girls is most often because . . .
of the rapid increase in body fat they experience
girls are most susceptible to feelings of body dissatisfaction when
1) they mature early
2) they begin dating early
what is drive for muscularity?
body image issues that boys face, where they feel they need to be muscular.
associated with muscle dysphoria. leads to over eating, relying of supplements, over exercising, misusing supplements.
positive when they feel more muscular than their same age peers.
what is the gender intensification hypothesis?
youth feel more pressure to act in more gendered ways (hyper-fem / hyper-masc) How youth endorce these norms impacts their self image.
what are masculine gender norms assoicated with?
the drive for muscularity
Study by Nagata et al foundt hat there was an assoication between ‘gender normativity’ and weight control attempts’
there are gendered differences in attempts to lose or gain weight.
Gender norms DO NOT relate to weight loss attempts for girls who dont endorse feminine norms.
but for girls who endorse feminine norms, the likelihood of weight loss attempts and behaviour increases
also a study by nagata et. al.
same things for dudes, but gaining weight & drive for muscularity
In what ways is body appreciation protective?
- associated with taking care of body
- decreased diet behaviour
- decreased alchohol and cigarette consumption
- increased physical activity
what does percieved body acceptance by others predict?
increased intuitive eating and body appreciation
(this shows that it matters who you surround yourself with)
what youth group is the most vulnerable to psychosocial maladjustment during puberty?
transgender and gender diverse youth
Research by Turban et al., demonstrated that transgender youth who receive pubertal suppression treatment are less likely to . . .
have suicidal ideation
Gender affirming care does not just mean medical intervention, it also requires _________
supportive social contexts (family and peer support)
physical changes of puberty affect _______, _______, and ______________
self image, mood, and relationships with parents
T/F
moodiness is at its strongest around ages 16, 17, 18
Falseeee
moodiness is most salient during early adolescence.
Give some examples for adolescents thinking about possibilities (like what they can do now)
-think what might be
-think “counterfactually” (what is + might have been)
-think about future, what could have been
-can more easily think about alternative explanations + possibilities
-better reasoners/arguers
-hypothetical “if-then” thinking
What are adolescents now capable of when in comes to thinking about abstract concepts?
-comprehend higher-order abstract logic (puns, metaphors)
-improvements in social cognition, directly related to improvements in the ability to think abstractly
How is adolescent moodiness related more related to fluctuations throughout the day?
-environmental factors like shifts in activities or problems with family / friends
- more related to novelty of experiences
- not solely due to hormones
(its more like how quickly the hormones change compared to adults)
What is metacognition?
“Thinking about thinking”
What did a study by Larson et al., find regarding adolescent moodiness?
- varies between wider extremes
- changes quickly
- less predictable than adults.
e.g., really really hated going to church, and really liked playing basketball and joking with sister
What can adolescence do once they are able to participate in metacognition?
-monitor one’s own cognitive activity while thinking
-increased introspection (thinking about emotions)
-ability to gauge own performance (proxy of metacognitive ability)
-increase self consciousness (thinking about others thinking about us)
What is adolescent egocentrism?
Extreme self absorption that comes with the ability of introspection
Is an individuals perception of OR the reality of being an early (or late) maturer more important in affecting their feelings
how they perceive being early or late is more important.
What are two distinct problems in thinking that help to explain some of the odd beliefs and behaviours of teenagers?
Imaginary audience
Personal fable
What are the benefits / downsides of boys who mature early?
benefits:
- more popularity
- higher self-esteem
-look more mature
-more aligned with gender norms of masculinity.
downside:
-involvement in problem behaviours
-the risk of psychopathology.
- substance use
- bullying
what are some benefits and downsides to boys who mature late?
benefits:
- intellectual curiosity
- exploratory behaviour
- social initiative
Downside:
- low popularity
- more vulnerable to mental health difficulties.
What are some benefits / downsides of girls who mature early?
benefits:
- popularity
Downside:
- peer victimization
- involvement in problem behaviours
- risk of psychopathology
what are the benefits / downsides of girls who mature late?
benefits:
- fewer psychological problems
downside:
- poor self esteem
Who has more difficulties, early maturing girls or boys?
gurls.
what is maturational deviance hypothesis?
youth who stand far apart from their peers (e.g., physical appearance) may expereience more psychological distress than adolescence who belnd in more easily
What is Developmental readiness hypothesis?
younger adolescents may be less ready to cope with the challange of puberty than older adolesence.
–> not necessarily true because early maturing boys have a better time than early maturing girls due to social priveledges
How do cultural and contextual factors explain gender differences in difficulties with maturation?
for boys…
their pubetal outcomes can be associated with contexts like: deviant peer groups, poor school experience, harsh parenting, neighbourhood disorganization.
i dont actually know if this answers the qudstion tho.
What is delayed sleep preference?
teenagers will stay up until 1 and sleep in until 10, because their melatonin secretion is shifted later at puberty.
- starts 2 hours later.
- more sleepy in the morning than before puberty
on average, sleep is ______ over time
declining
- generational differeence
- reccomended sleep time is 9 hours
What are some psychosocial problems associated with inadequate sleep?
- risk of internalizing problems
- poor academic performane
- obesity.. lol ok
what is the minimal amount of energy used when resting called?
Basal metabolism rate
(drops about 15% in adolescence)
What did Niermann et al., find health related behaviours were connected to?
- family health environment influences adolescents physical activity & healthy dietary behaviours
- BUT depends on adolescents’ intrinsic motivation
Youth who experience peer victimization exprerience poor ________ and ________
physical health symptoms and poor physical self-concepts..
concurrently + over time
Does peer difficulties contribute to the dysregulation of the body’s stress system?
yes
Hager & Leadbeater found that . . .
- Inability to cope (e.g., avoidance, denial, and rumination)
- overreaince on substance use and other high risk behaviours
- low afinity for maintaing a healthy lifestyle
…. are all associated with whhhhat
peer difficulties.
Difficulties coping with stressors may manifest as what emotions?
- irritability
- defiance
- anger
Does chronic, persistent problems (like oppositional defiant symptoms ODS) during adolesence have an enduring effect in young adulthood.
you betta believe it
The relational conflicts associated with ODS may exacerbate ________ and __________
stress and lonliness
Is ODS related to more negative physical health symptoms
ya.
What are the benefits of physical activity?
- decreased depressive symptoms
- decreased percieved stress
- self rated health
physical and health literacy is a precursor to activity and injury prevention
nice
T/F the Canadian physical activity guideline reccomends youth do 1 hour of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day.
truuuuue
but only 17% of BC students meet these reccomendations
the minimal amount of energy one uses when resting which decrease in adolescence
basal metabolism rate
the hormonally induced increase in the rate of growth in height and weight
growth spurt
Psychologist Jeffery Arnett used this term to describe the period of development between adolescence and adulthood which is characterized by:
3x
(exploration, possibilities and independent)
Compared to 100 years ago, the adolescent period has been _____ and the transition into adulthood _____
(lengthened) and (prolonged / delayed).
PE classes that intergrade this athletic skill to improve coordination rather than focus strictly on strength or endurance
physical literacy
according to social inventionists, the social redefinition of adolescence across societies varies by two of these dimensions
clarity and continuity
the findings from smith, chien, and steinburg which used a gambling task, demonstrated this amount of adolescent risk taking and peer contexts
adolescents are more likely to take risks around peers compared to when they are alone.
study that examine the timing of onset of puberty show that early maturing girls tend to exhibit ____ than early maturing boys
(more psychological problems)
- have to explain WHY
according to Erikson, adolescents corresponds to this psychosocial stage of development
identity vs. role confusion
Dave who is 14 knows that kids who drink and derive get into accidents, doesn’t believe it will happen to him.. example of a belief of
personal fable.
the physical transition from child to adult
puberty
as development occurs, the ability to do this, allows adolescent to describe a more nuanced conception of themselves.. A 4-year-old might not be able to do it
thinking in multiple dimensions
this hormone related to sleepiness is secreted about 2 hours later among adolescents who completed puberty
melatonin
the pattern of sleep that characterizes why make tends to sleep until 1 and sleep until 11
delayed sleep preference
changes in the age of onset of puberty has ____ over time known to as _______
( decreased) and (secular trend)
this theory asserts that early maturing girls may feel more psychological distress because they stand far apart from their peers in physical appearance which may explain the gender disparity in pubertal timing related adjustment
maturational deviance hypothesis
adolescents are able to see beyond what is directly observable and apply logical reasoning skills which is a feature of
hypothetical thinking (or thinking about possibilities).
Vygotsky would describe a 5 year old teaching a 2 year old as
scaffolding
What is an “imaginary audience”?
-belief that everyone is watching you
-belief that their behaviour is the focus of other’s concern
What is a “personal fable”?
-form of adolescent egocentrism, a by-product of advanced thinking processes
-belief that their experiences are unique
-enhances self esteem and self importance
-ex. kid goes through breakup and thinks mom couldn’t possibly understand
-partaking in risky behaviour thinking nothing bad could happen to them
What does it mean for adolescents to be able to think in multiple dimensions?
-ability to view things from more than one aspect at a time
-allow for more sophisticated understanding of probability
-more complicated self-conceptions and relationships
-understand sarcasm, satire, metaphor
What is adolescent relativism?
-ability to see things as relative rather than as absolute
-more likely to question others assertions and less likely to accept “facts” as absolute truths
-difficulty arises between youth and parents
What is the Piagetian view of adolescent thinking?
-abstract logical reasoning is the defining feature of formal operations (adolescent thinking)
-influenced both by internal biological changes and changes in the intellectual environment
-believed that as children mature they go through distinct stages of cog. development
-qualitatively distinct stages
What was wrong about the Piagetian view of adolescent thinking?
-little support that cognitive development precedes in stage-like fashion
-not qualitatively distinct
-more gradual and continuous
What are the 4 stages in Piaget’s view of adolescent thinking?
- Sensorimotor stage
(child interacts w env.) - Preoperational stage
(child represents world symbolically) - Concrete operational stage
(child learns rules like conversation) - Formal operation stage
(adolescent can transcend the concrete situation and think about future)
What is the information-processing view of adolescent thinking?
-perspective on cognition
-derived from studying artificial intelligence
-attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of growth of specific components of thinking process (like Piaget)
-has 4 areas of improvement
What are the four areas of improvement in the information-processing view of adolescent thinking?
attention
memory
processing speed
organization
What is the definition of selective and divided attention according to the information-processing view?
Selective: adolescents must focus on one thing and tune out another
Divided: pay attention to two things at the same time
What is working memory?
-remember things for a brief period of time, like 30s
What is ling-term memory?
recall something from a long time ago
What is autobiographical memory?
-Ability to remember personally meaningful events from earlier in life, an aspect of long-term memory
What is the phenomenon called a reminiscence bump?
Experiences from adolescence are generally recalled more than experiences from other stages of life.
Explain the improvement of processing speed in adolescents
-can process/think faster than kids
-processing speed stops increasing by the end of adolescents - not much difference between adolescents and young adults
define social redefinition
the process thorugh which an individual’s position or status is redefined by society
Explain media multitasking + concerns about it
-requires coordination of multiple attention systems
-may result in performing worse on tests of both working memory and long-term memory
-requires more effort and executive control to redirect attention and stay on tasks in the presence of distracting stimuli
is the social transition between adolesence and adulthood more or less explicit in north American societies compared to traditional cultures
less explicit in north america.
other cultures have ceremonities to signify the pivotal moment
How does social redefinition shape adolescent identity?
allows them to feel more mature, and to think ore seriously about future work and family roles
how does social redefinition shape autonomy?
leads to a shift in responsibility, independence, and freedom.
how does social redefinition shape intimacy, dating and marriage?
leads adolescents to make decisions about sexual activity
how does social redefiniton shape achievement?
leads adolescents to either become a full time employee or leave school of their own volition
What is the elongation of adolescents?
- adolescents lasts longer today than ever before..
- puberty starts earlier
- people enter into adult roles of work and family later
(extended period contributes to am ore vague transition into adulthood)
What do inventionists mean when they say that adolescence is social invention?
that adolescence is socially constructed.
- not biological
- defined by society
- it is relative to other cultures and historical periods
Where did the ‘invention’ of adolesence come from?
the industrial revolution
before this children were sources of labour for their families. they were raised in the roles they were expected to work in later in life. then automation happened, and there was more competition for jobs. Also child protectionists said kids shouldn’t be working, and formal education is lengthened.
T/F — teenager, youth, and emerging adulthood are all relatively new terms?
yah - since the 1920s
What did Jeffery Arnett term a person aged 18-25 who is caught between adolescence and adulthood?
emerging adulthood
what is emerging adulthood characterized by?
- the exploration of possibile identities before making enduring choices
- Instability in work, romantic relationships, and living arrangements
- A focus on oneself and independent functioning
- the feeling of being caught between adolescence and adulthood
- the sense that life holds many possibilities
Is emerging adulthood universal?
hell naw.
socioeconomic status contributes alot to it… if you have the means to engage in this identity exploration, or whether you have to choose a role immediately to provide for your family
What did a study by Milan on Marital Status find?
people are staying single for longer than ever before.
more young adults live in their parental homes than before
no shit
When does depression peak?
when does it decline?
in adolescence it peaks
declines in young adulthood
Does wellbeing increase in emerging adulthood.. why might that be?
duh
not relying on approval from others as much, frontal cortex development, autonomy and congruence in identity when you get older, more authentic
with increased __________ also comes increased ___________ in adolescence
priviledges & responsibility
Brain maturation in adolescence may be linked to behavioural, emotional, and cognitive development BUT…
Correlation is not causation!
-their behaviour affects their brain development
-research says more sophisticated cognitive abilities are still developing after 20s
-but basic abilities are generally well developed by teens
How do legal boundaries reflect the transition to adulthood?
+ examples
Emerging adults are subject to a new set of laws and treatment by society’s legal institutions
e.g.,
- gambling
- purchasing alcohol, smoking
- driving
- voting
legal boundaries are a huge indicator of when adolescence can have adult privledges
just a fun fact
What date did the Youth Crimnial Justice Act come about
2003
What are main findings from Popovac & Hadlington (2020) related to
risky sexual online behaviours that demonstrate the personal fable?
Popovac & Hadlington
(2020) found that adolescents who engaged in risky online behaviors
(e.g., sexting, befriending stranger, sharing passwords) felt personally
less vulnerable to negative consequences than adolescents who did
not engage in risky online behaviours.
What is the Youth Criminal Justice Act?
designed to help re-intergrate youth back into the community after they commit crimes. Resorative justice. Prevents institutionalization.
Emphasis on
- reintergration
- rehabilitation
- PREVENTION.
The Youth crimnal justice act will also detain youth if crime is serious enough.. but respects their privacy (wont have to appear in court), and the charges are usually decreased (engage in more community service, etc).
goal is to rehabilitate youth.
just more stuff
What were the main findings from Moisala et al. (2016) titled “Media multitasking is associated with distractibility and increased prefrontal activity in adolescents and young adults”
-participants performed speech-listening and reading tasks
-had to either maintain attention on one thing in the presents of a distracting stimuli or divide attention between 2 tasks at same time
-in the presence of distractor stimuli, a higher daily media multitasking (MMT) score associated with worse performance and increased brain activity in right prefrontal regions.
-The level
of performance during divided attention did not depend on MMT.
- suggests that such behaviour requires more effort and executive control to redirect attention and stay on task in the presence of distracting stimuli
The US has the “get tough policy” how does this policy treat youth in the criminal justice system?
- adult time for adult crimes.
- meant to discourage youth by prosecuting them for adult crimes
- disproportionately incriminates youth
What is the max age for juvenile court in the States?
17
what are transfer laws (US)
where young offenders can be persecuted as adults
What year in Canada, did the number of youth in custody take a serious dip?
2003 - when the youth criminal justice act came about
What is rites of passage?
a ceremony marking a youth’s transition into adulthood
e.g., Quinceanera, coming of age ceremony
Define cohort
a group of individuals born during the same general historical era
e.g., graduating class
What are two ways that societies differ in the process of social redefinition?
Clarity & Continuity ***
How explicit is the transition? (clarity)
Do you even notice it, or is the process of becoming an adult ‘smoother’ or more ambiguous (continuity)
CLARITY - contemporary
What are trends in contemporary society in defining adulthood?
(these are markers that separate adolescence from adulthood)
- less emphasis on attaining a specific role, and more emphasis on self-reliance..
- decline in the importance of family roles
- similar criteria for males and females, fewer gender-typed role expectations
- no formal ceremony
CLARITY - traditional cultures
What are some ways that clarity of social redefinition is seen in traditional cultures?
- social redefinition is clearly recognized
- formal initiation ceremonies take place
- for boys: the timing of the ceremony varies (decided by age, or when community decides boy is ready)
- for girls: usually linked to menarchy
- physical appearance changes. (they get a new name or clothing)
- adults are differentiated from children
How does the brain function? (simple answer)
-by transmitting electrical signals across circuits that are composed of interconnected cells, called neurons
Say stuff about the coming of age tradition of the Satere-Mawe people: the bullet ant initiation
its an example of clarity in social redefintion.
boys when they are ready to become men have to go through 20 rounds of wearing gloves with bullet ants in them.
becoming an adult means enduring the pain of this.
lol idk I feel like boys should do this.
what are the two dimensions of continuity?
continuity and discontinuity
social redefinition is influenced by continuity and discontinuity
ya… it varies across cultural and historical contexts
Continuous transitions = gradual transitions…
what are gradual transitions, and where do you find this sort of social redefinition?
common in traditional societies - hunting / farming..
involves apprenticeship, and working in the role that you are expected to take on later in life. you are introduce to it at an ealry age and then sort of transition into it graudally
Name all the parts of a neuron (3)
-cell body
-axon
-dendrites
What are dendrites collectively known as?
grey matter
What is the synapse?
a tiny gap between the tip of one neuron’s axon and another neurons dendrite
Discontinuous transion = sudden transitions…
what does this meannn.. and what kind of societies is it common in ?
contemporary societies…
its a pretty abrupt transition from adolesence to adulthood.. e.g., you finish highschool then you enter the work force. there is not a preparatory period.
What are neurotransmitters?
Specialized chemicals that cary electrical impulses between neurons
discontinuity = sudden.
say more things about it.
- little preparation for toles of worker, parent, citizen
- adolescents are typically segregated from these activiteis beforehand
- and then required to assume roles when they reach adult status.
Explain synaptic pruning
-soon after birth, unused and unnecessary synapses start to be eliminated
-results in a decrease in the amount of grey matter in the brain
-makes brain more efficient
Traditional cultures are more continuous…
say things.
adolescents preparation for adulthood comes from observation and hands on exprience..
- they are involved in tasks, and have meaningful connections to the work they will do as adults
- children are intergrated into community initatives.
- globalization and modernaization have disrupted these ways of being thogh. boo.
what are two trends that are reshaping the transition into adulthood in contemporary societes? `
the increasing length of the transitional period
&
increasing demand for more formal education
the quality of the transion from adolesence to adulthood may depend on resources
e.g., if there is a disparity in opportunities then kids have to go into the work force right away
what are some transitional problems (from adolesence to adulthood) in vulnerable youth?
- poverty (inhibits a smooth transition)
- increased liklihood of failure in school, unemployment, delinquency, teen pregnancy, homelessness.
- minory youth are more at risk.
What are some ways that we can help kids transition from adolesence to adulthood?
- offer more apprenticeship opportunities in school
- expand work and voluneering opportunities
- improve community life for adolesence and parents (because poverty impacts social relationships / more community = more opporunties)
- facilitate mentoring programs for at risk adolesence
what are 3 factors that neighbourhoods can impact youth adjustment & help them adapt
1) collective efficacy
2) impact of stress
3) limited access to resources.
define collective efficacy
the extent to which neighbours trust eachother, share values, and count on each othe to monitor activies of youth in community
neighbourhoods high in collective efficacy is important for adolesence whose paents are not vigilant.
lol someone has to be paying atteniton around here.
How is the impact of stress an important neightbourhood influence
the stresses associated with poverty undermine the quality of peoples relationships with eachother.
working all the time, you might not be able to provide adequate support.. poor parenting practices.. kids arent taught things like how to regulate their emotoins.
supportive neighbourhoods can help with the effects of poverty – there is neurological evidence of parental quality buffering effects of povery on cognition (whatever that means)
What does white matter do?
-cells other than neurons
-provide support and protection for neurons and compose a fatty substance, called myelin
If you grow up in poverty, and your parents are not supportive, individuals over time experience a decline in emotional regulation skills..
but, if you have parents who are highly supportive, your emotional regulation will stay stable, even if living in poverty
Brody et al.,
executive funtioning
+
emotional regulation
supportive parenting acts as a buffer for executive funtioning when being raised in poverty
but if you grow up in poverty, without supportive parents, your executive functioning is shit
Brody et al.,
executive functioning
+
emotional regulation
What are some examples of factors that may be limited resources in neighbourhoods.
- under funded schools
- health care (limited access in high poverty)
- transportation
- employment
- recreational services
What is myelin and myelination?
-a fatty substance that surrounds the axons of certain neurons
-myelination is the process where the brain circuits are insulated with myelin
-improves efficiency of info processing
define: age of majority
the designated age at which an individual is recognized as an adult
Continuous transitions = passages into adulthood in which adult roels and status are entered into gradually
textbook
discontinuous transitions = passages into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered into abruptly
textbook
define subjective social status
where one beleives he or she ranks socioeconomically (regardless of actual SES)
neighbourhood disorder –> lower estimated life expectency –> crime, drugs, risky sex
idk
collective efficacy = a community’s social capital, derived from its memebrs common values and goals
textbook
What were the main findings from the study by Fleming et al. (2010) “Relating introspective accuracy to individual differences in brain structure”
introspective accuracy was correlated to reduction of grey matter and increase of white matter in certain areas of the brain
“underlying differences in
metacognitive ability are similarly dependent on
large-scale brain anatomy”
*idk this paper was really nerdy and hard to understand
According to Pfefferbaum (LOL) et al. (1994) “a study of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of changes in brain morphology from infancy to lake adulthood”, when does cortical white matter start to increase, and then level off?
increases from birth, levels off around 20yrs
What is the age of opportunity?
adolescence is known as the age of opportunity because our brains are especially malleable or “plastic” during this time
-environment and experience are critical factors
-interacts with genetic plasticity
What is plasticity (referring to the brain)
the capacity of the brain to change in response to experience
-increasing evidence suggests that the increase in plasticity may be due to hormonal changes from puberty
What is developmental plasticity?
The malleability of brain during periods of the brain being built - like in adolescence
What is adult plasticity
relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured
What were the main findings of the study by Belsky, J., & Beaver, K.M. (2011) “cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation”
-
What changes in the brain in adolescence?
-brain is “remodelled” through synaptic pruning
-cortex thickens
-thinning of grey matter
-myelination (increase of white matter)
-better connectivity between limbic and prefrontal, which leads to improvements in our ability to regulate our emotions and coordinate our thoughts and feelings
What is the prefrontal cortex?
-the region of the brain most important for sophisticated thinking abilities, such as planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks and rewards, and controlling impulses
What is the limbic system?
-an area of the brain involved in the processing of emotions, social information, and reward and punishment
What are individual differences in neural maturation linked to?
-behavioural differences
-genetic influences
-environmental influences
-ex. participation in prosocial behaviour (like helping people) can result in greater and faster thickening of the cortex
What are two important changes in brain function involving the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
-patterns of activation within PFC generally become more focused
-activity in the PFC becomes increasingly coordinated with activity in other parts of the brain
What is response inhibition?
-The suppression of a behaviour that is inappropriate or no longer required
-ex. in experiments where participants are presented with a rapid succession of images and asked to push a button when a certain image appears but refrain from pushing it when a different image appears
What is executive function?
More advanced thinking abilities, enabled by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, especially in early adolescence.
By what age is maturation of functional connectivity mostly complete?
approx 22
What neurotransmitters have a different effect on the brain during adolescents?
Dopamine (Role in experience of reward)
Serotonin (role in experience of different moods)
What changes in the limbic system may make individuals more vulnerable?
Because of changes to dopamine and serotonin adolescents are:
-more emotional
-more responsive to stress
-more likely to engage in reward-seeking and sensation-seeking
-more vulnerable to substance abuse, depression, and other mental health probs
What is the age of onset of most common psychiatric disorders?
between age 10-20
Changes in the limbic system that create more emotionality also have implications of what?
-sensation seeking, sensitivity to reward, decision making, and impulse control
-linked more to cognitive control than puberty hormones
-these go up in early adolescence, and then slowly start to go down closer to young adulthood
What is the social brain?
A network of regions in the brain in adolescence
-changes to these areas in the brain creates sensitivity to social cues, more self consciousness, and ability to feel embarrassment
-more susceptible to social pressure
What were the main findings in the study by Braams et. al (2015) “longitudinal changes in adolescent risk taking: a comprehensive study of neural responses to rewards, pubertal development, and risk taking behaviour”
- risk taking behaviour may be due to sensitivity and risk taking
-there was a positive correlation between brain structure and risk taking
-participants were told to poke the balloon as many times as they could without the balloon popping: how many pokes they would do was correlated to risk taking probability
What were the main findings in the study by Smith et al., (2014) “peers increase adolescent risk taking even when the probabilities of negative outcomes are known”
-risk taking is strongly influenced by context
-adolescence have reliance on peers and a sensitivity to peer approval
-gambling task:
alone = less risky gambling
with peers watching = more risky gambling, regardless of greater loss
What were the outcomes of the study by Telzer et al., (2015) “Mothers know best: redirecting adolescent reward sensitivity toward safe behaviour during risk taking”
-Driving simulation: when their mother was watching them in a driving simulation, they took fewer risks compared to when alone
- when taking fewer risks, the part of the brain that does cognitive control is more pronounced
What were the main findings of the study by QU, Y., et al., (2015) “buffering effect of positive parent-child relationships on adolescent risk taking: a longitudinal neuroimaging investigation”
-Did the balloon test but looked at the relationship with parent (- vs +)
- negative parent-child relationships = more risk taking
- positive parent-child relationships = fewer risk taking
What is behavioural decision theory?
-An approach to understanding adolescent risk taking, in which behaviours are seen as the outcome of systematic decision-making processes
-decision making is rational and individuals try to maximize benefits of alternative courses of action and minimize costs
What is the “maturity gap” or “window of risk”?
Adolescents’ intellectual capability reaches adult levels before they are emotionally and socially mature
-young adults whose estimated “brain age” was lower than their chronological age were more likely to report enjoying risk taking
What is different between adult and adolescent values and priorities (specifically around risk/consequence)
-adolescence and adults evaluate the desirability of possible consequences differently
-adolescents may be more attuned to the potential rewards than adults
-ex. adolescence drive more recklessly when with alone or with peers than when they have adult passengers
What might be a good strategy to convince adolescents not to take risks?
-since adolescence care more about reward than risk, convince them that the rewards of risky activity are small rather than persuade them costs are large
-ex. “how far will this temporary popularity really get you?”
What is positive risk taking?
Risk taking that promotes healthy psychological development
-in order for us to adapt to the environment, we need to take risks
-ex. mating: have to take a risk and hit on pretty girly
What are differential pathways?
different pathways in our brain are correlated to positive or negative risk taking
What were the results of the study by Duell, N., & Steinberg, L., (2020) “Differential correlates of positive and negative risk taking in adolescence”
-conducted multiple kinds of studies to see what ones correlated to positive and or negative risk taking:
-BART: only negative
-Sensation Seeking: both positive and negative
-Impulse Control: more impulsive = more negative risks, and less impulsive = less negative risks
What is the most widely used measure to assess intelligence today?
Intelligence tests/ Intelligence quotient (IQ)
-mental abilities assessed by traditional IQ tests increase dramatically through childhood and adolescence
-correlated with maturation of brain circuitry
What is the Zone of Proximal Development, and who came up with it?
*see slide 93 for illustration
Children and adolescents learn best in everyday situations when they encounter tasks that are neither too simple nor too advanced - just slightly more challenging than their abilities permit them to solve on their own
-Invented by Lev Vygotsky
-emphasizes context in which intellectual development occurs
-What I can do, what I can do with help, what I can’t do
What is scaffolding?
The role of the instructor is to help structure the learning situation so that it is within the reach of the student - this is scaffolding
-can use IQ to cater to their learning needs
What is social cognition?
Involves such cognitive activities as thinking about people, social relationships, and social institutions
Adolescents conceptions of interpersonal relationships become more mature - What are some examples?
-understanding of human behaviour is more advanced
-ideas about social institutions and organizations are more accurate
-ability to figure out what other people think is more accurate
What are the four categories that research on social cognition in adolescence falls into?
-theory of mind (mentalizing)
-thinking about social relationships
-understanding social conventions
-conceptions of laws, civil liberties, and rights (question authority, better at arguing, see they can change the world etc.)
What is theory of mind?
The ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that may be different from one’s own.
What is mentalizing?
The ability to understand someone else’s mental state.
What are social conventions?
The norms that govern everyday behaviour in social situations
