Exam 3 Flashcards
Homeostasis
optimal, stable, and balanced internal environment
How does the body respond to deviations from homeostasis?
By initiating changes in motivation to restore balance
What are the four main processes of homeostasis?
Negative feedback, redundancy, behavioral compensation, and allostasis
Define negative feedback in homeostasis.
A process where restoring the set point turns off the response. Example: A thermostat regulating temperature
What is redundancy in homeostasis?
Multiple systems performing the same function to ensure fail-safety in vital processes
What is behavioral compensation in homeostasis?
Behavioral adjustments to maintain internal stability, such as seeking shade to cool down
Define allostasis.
Predictive regulation of bodily processes to maintain stability in response to stressors
What is allostatic load?
The wear and tear on the body from chronic stress, potentially causing system breakdown
What is thermoregulation?
The process of maintaining a stable internal body temperature
What are the main physiological effectors in thermoregulation?
Non-shivering thermogenesis, skin blood flow changes, water evaporation, and shivering thermogenesis
What are behavioral effectors in thermoregulation?
Actions like postural changes, temperature choice, and altering the microenvironment (e.g., using air conditioning)
How do endotherms and ectotherms differ in thermoregulation?
Endotherms generate heat internally through metabolism, while ectotherms rely on environmental heat sources
What percentage of food energy is used for basal metabolism?
About 80%
Why is losing weight difficult according to homeostasis?
Allostasis detects starvation and adjusts basal metabolism to conserve energy
What is the role of leptin in hunger regulation?
Leptin, produced by fat cells, signals long-term energy stores and decreases hunger
What is the function of ghrelin in hunger?
Ghrelin, released by the empty stomach, stimulates hunger by exciting NPY neurons
How do insulin and PYY regulate hunger and satiety?
Insulin suppresses hunger in response to high glucose; PYY signals to stop feeding
What is the role of the arcuate nucleus in hunger regulation?
It houses neurons that control hunger (NPY neurons) and satiety (POMC neurons)
What happens to leptin-deficient rodents?
They overeat, demonstrating leptin’s role in regulating energy storage
How does redundancy support homeostasis?
If one system fails, other systems compensate to maintain balance
Why is redundancy vital in thermoregulation?
It ensures survival-critical functions even if one neural region is damaged
What does lesioning the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) show?
VMH lesions lead to higher weight set points but still allow satiety
What does lesioning the lateral hypothalamus (LH) show?
LH lesions result in lower weight set points, but hunger is still experienced
How does the hypothalamus regulate hunger and satiety?
By integrating signals from gut hormones (e.g., leptin, ghrelin, PYY) to balance energy intake
Homeostasis
The maintenance of an optimal, stable, and balanced internal environment
Negative Feedback
A mechanism where restoring the set point turns off the response
Redundancy
Multiple systems performing the same function to ensure fail-safety for vital processes
Behavioral Compensation
Actions taken to maintain stability, such as altering the environment
Allostasis
Predictive regulation of bodily processes in response to anticipated stressors
Allostatic Load
The wear and tear on the body caused by chronic stress
Basal Metabolism
The energy expenditure required to maintain basic bodily functions
Thermoregulation
The process of maintaining a stable internal body temperature
Endotherms
Animals that generate heat internally through metabolism (e.g., humans)
Ectotherms
Animals that rely on environmental heat sources to regulate body temperature
Preoptic Area (POA)
A region in the hypothalamus that houses thermosensitive neurons critical for temperature regulation
Arcuate Nucleus
A part of the hypothalamus that regulates hunger and satiety through NPY and POMC neurons
NPY Neurons
Hunger neurons in the arcuate nucleus excited by ghrelin, promoting feeding
POMC Neurons
Satiety neurons in the arcuate nucleus, activated by leptin and GLP to suppress hunger
Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)
Brain region involved in hunger regulation; lesions lower weight set points
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)
Brain region associated with satiety; lesions increase weight set points
Hypothalamus
The central brain area integrating signals for thermoregulation, hunger, and satiety
Leptin
Hormone from fat cells signaling long-term energy storage and decreasing hunger
Ghrelin
Hormone from the empty stomach that excites hunger neurons and promotes feeding
Insulin
Hormone released with high glucose levels, signaling satiety and suppressing hunger
PYY
Gut hormone signaling to stop feeding when food is present in the intestines
GLP (Glucagon-Like Peptide)
Intestinal hormone that suppresses hunger and shuts down feeding
Set Point
The target value or range maintained by homeostatic processes (e.g., body temperature)
Thermosensitive Neurons
Specialized neurons in the POA and hypothalamus that detect temperature changes
Physiological Effectors
Mechanisms like shivering, sweating, and vasodilation to regulate internal conditions
Behavioral Effectors
Actions such as seeking shade, adjusting posture, or using environmental tools for regulation
Energy Storage
Glucose stored with insulin or as fat in adipose tissue; mobilized with glucagon
VMH-Lesion Effects
Leads to a new, higher weight set point, but the animal still experiences satiety
Lateral Hypothalamus-Lesion Effects
Results in a new, lower weight set point while maintaining hunger sensations
Hormonal Integration
Signals like leptin, ghrelin, and insulin work together to regulate energy intake
Thermoregulation is considered a negative feedback sytem because
Restoring the desired temperature turns off the response
Which response is not a physiological response of the mammalian thermoregulatory system?
Lying in the shade
Which hormone monitors the body’s longer-term energy reservoirs in the form of fat?
Leptin
Leptin inhibits the activity of ____ neurons, which work in opposition to POMC neurons.
npy
where is the arcuate nucleus?
hypothalamus
what are the two neurons in the arcuate nucleus?
hunger neuron (NPY neuron) and satiety neuron (POMC)
Leptin
A hormone produced by adipose cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.; slow single
insulin
released when there is a lot of glucose in bloodstream; fast signal to stop feeding (from pancreas)
ghrelin
hunger arousing hormone from empty stomach; pretty fast
PYY
from intestines; when the levels are high it will slow down or stop feeding; released from digestion
GLP
works to shut down feeding; produced by intestines
which hormones cause hunger?
Ghrelin
Battle between NPY (hunger) and POMC (satiety)
GLP and leptin excite the POMC (decreasing hunger) while inhibiting NPY (decreasing hunger)
Ghrelin excites the NPY neurons (increasing hunger)
Which hormones signal satiety?
GLP, leptin, insulin, PYY
How does thermo info get to the brain from 1. skin, 2. internal, 3. within brain
- from the free nerve endings up the spinal cord
- from the body core or neck up up the brain stem
- from the hypothalamus/POA gets the info from within it and from the spinal cord/ brain stem
Core features of emotions
scalability, valence, persistence, generalization, global coordination, social communication
emotions are _________, _________ states
central, causative (there is a relationship between emotional states and behavior)
Scalability
Emotions are scalable meaning they exist at different intensities even if the emotion is relatively the same due to different arousal levels and context (annoyance vs. anger. vs. rage)
Valence
is it a pleasant or unpleasant emotion (happy vs. sad)
Persistence
An emotional response outlasts the stimulus (makes an emotion diff from a reflex; it is longer than the stimulus)
Generalization
A conditioned response to one object is exhibited in the presence of similar stimuli (like little albert being scared of rats making him scared of anything fluffy)
Global Coordination
Emotional stimuli elicit changes in the brain that are interpreted in a certain way, and that causes changes throughout the body (like changes in hormones, behavior, blood pressure etc)
Social communication
We exhibit in our face an expression of the emotional state we are in (so other members of our species can use that info)
What happens during a defensive response?
When you see a threat the sensory system sends the raw info to the amygdala. then the amygdala interprets it as threatening so behavior, hormones, and sympathetic response changes
Sham Rage experiments
based largely on Phineas Gage; showed that frontal cortex works to inhibit very strong emotions; if they severed connection between frontal cortex and hypothalamus they would get rage response (through more experiments they think anterior hypothalamus is important)
Which part of the hypothalamus was important in rage responses?
anterior hypothalamus
The Limbic System
Series of interconnected structures that serve emotions (originally defined as subcortical but there is a lot of the cortex that is involved in emotional regulation)
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
Lesioned amygdala and hippocampus leads to decreased fear and aggression but also causes diff emotional changes (emotional blunting, weight gain, inappropriate sexual behavior, visual agnosia)
autonomic nervous system and emotion
interoceptive feedback means that emotions are somewhat dependent on what is already going on in the body; polygraph tests shows that ANS is involved with emotion
interoceptive feedback
the brain is always interpreting what is happening within the body; ex if you give a drug that increases heart rate, people will experience anxiety even without fearful stimuli
Facial expressions in nonhuman animals
nonhuman animals have facial expressions; rats have them for pain, tastes (sweet vs bitter), and fear
We know the most about which emotion?
Fear bc it is easy to replicate in nonhuman subjects
When does fear happen?
When we perceive a threat so we have a defensive response
From which 2 places does sensory info get to the lateral amygdala?
From the sensory thalamus (low road) or from the sensory cortex (high road)
Explain the high road
sensory info goes through the sensory cortex into the lateral amygdala (this sensory info is more put together than the low road); a memory is formed in the lateral amygdala then the info is sent to the central amygdala; then the central amygdala sends projections to other brain regions to cause the autonomic, physiological, and behavioral changes
Where is the amygdala located?
deep in the medial temporal lobe
Explain the low road
The sensory thalamus provides fast and coarse info to the lateral amygdala (good for instinctual); a memory is formed in the lateral amygdala then the info is sent to the central amygdala; then the central amygdala sends projections to other brain regions to cause the autonomic, physiological, and behavioral changes
Where does pavlovian fear conditioning happen?
lateral amygdala
Urbach-Wiethe Disease (S.M.)
A skin calcification disorder that leads to the loss of the amygdala and thus the loss of fear (except a panic response when the amt of CO2 is changed in the air)