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Brain and Behavior > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Neuron

A

Neurons are cells arranged into circuits that underlie all forms of behavior;They receive input from cells, integrate the inputs, then distribute the processed info to other neurons

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2
Q

Neuron zones

A

Input zone: dendrites and dendritic spines; Integration zone: cell body (soma),axon hillock; Conduction zone: axon, myelin sheath, nodes of ranvier; Output zone: axon terminals. Make synapses with other neurons

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3
Q

Multipolar neuron

A

Have many dendrites and a single axon; Most common type of neuron

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4
Q

Bipolar neuron

A

Have a single dendrite at one end of the cell and a single axon at the other end; Common in sensory systems, like vision

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5
Q

Unipolar neuron

A

Have a single extension (process), usually thought of as an axon, that branches in two directions after leaving the cell body; Transmit touch info from the body into the spinal cord

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6
Q

Motor Neurons

A

Large neurons with long axons reaching out to synapse on muscles, causing muscular contractions

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7
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Specialized to gather sensory info

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8
Q

Interneurons

A

Small neurons that analyze info gathered from one set of neurons and communicate with others; Most of the neurons in our brain

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9
Q

Soma

A

The neuron’s cell body that integrates the info that has been received; In the integration zone

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10
Q

Dendrite

A

The neuron’s cellular extensions that help the it receive info via synapses from other neurons; Some neurons have dendritic spines which are small projections (like branches) that add additional space for synapses; In the input zone

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11
Q

Axon

A

The nerve fiber that carries the neuron’s own electrical signals away from the cell body; In the conduction zone, carrying the info to where it needs to go

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12
Q

Axon terminal

A

The specialized swellings at the ends of the axon that transmit the neuron’s signals across synapses to other cells; In the output zone

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13
Q

Myelin

A

A fatty substance that wrap around successive axons in order to insulate them; Myelination increases the speed with which the electrical signals pass down the axon; Myelin does not cover the Nodes of Ranvier, which the electrical signals jump quickly

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14
Q

Glial cell

A

Cells that protect and assist neurons; There are more glial cells than neurons in the brain

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15
Q

Astrocyte

A

Function in the brain; Help to form the tough outer membranes that coddle the brain; Some stretch between neurons and blood vessels to control local blood flow; Also secrete chemical signals that affect synaptic transmission and the formation of synapses

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16
Q

Microglia

A

Function in the brain; tiny and mobile cells that mainly contain and clean up sites of injury in the brain

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17
Q

Oligodendrocyte

A

Wrap myelin around axons in the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

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18
Q

Schwann Cell

A

Wrap myelination for everywhere BUT the brain and spinal cord (the PNS)

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19
Q

Ganglion (ganglia)

A

Groups of cell bodies in the PNS

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20
Q

Nuclei

A

Groups of cell bodies in the CNS

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21
Q

Nerves

A

Groups of axons in the PNS

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22
Q

Tracts

A

Groups of axons in the CNS

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23
Q

Central nervous system (CNS)

A

Consists of the brain and spinal cord

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24
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Everywhere BUT the brain and spinal cord

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25
Q

Somatic Nervous system

A

part of the PNS Consists of nerves that interconnect the brain and the major muscles and sensory systems of the bodies

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26
Q

Cranial nerves

A

Part of the somatic NS; 12 pairs (left and right) of cranial nerves that arise from the brain and innervate the head, neck, and visceral (other) organs directly, without ever joining the spinal cord

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27
Q

Sensory cranial nerves

A

Olfactory-smell; Optic-vision; Vestibulocochlear - hearing and balance

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28
Q

Motor Cranial Nerves

A

oculomotor - innervate muscles to move the eyes; trochlear - innervate muscles to move the eyes; abducens - innervate muscles to move the eyes; Spinal Accessory - control neck muscles; Hypoglossal - control the tongue

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29
Q

Cranial nerves with sensory and motor functions

A

trigeminal - transmit facial sensation, but also control the chewing muscles; facial - control facial muscles, but also receive some taste sensation; glossopharyngeal - receive additional taste sensations and sensations from the throat, but also control the throat muscles; Vagus- primary route by which the brain both controls and receies info from many visceral organs, also participates in varied functions like sweating, digestion and heart rate (extends from the head, running to other organs)

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30
Q

Spinal Nerves

A

Pair of 31 nerves; one on each side of body; Emerge through regularly spaced openings along both sides of the backbone

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31
Q

Spinal Nerves Number and location

A

8 cervical (neck); 12 thoracic (torso); 5 lumbar (lower back); 5 sacral (pelvic); 1 coccygeal (bottom)

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32
Q

Dorsal vs Ventral Spine Nerves

A

Dorsal spinal nerves enter thru the dorsal (back) side and carry sensory info from the body to the spinal cord (So they are afferent);Ventral spinal nerves exit from the ventral (front) side and carry motor signals from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands (So they are efferent)

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33
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

part of PNS; Consists of nerves that connect primarily to the viscera (internal organs); has parasympathetic and sympathetic systems

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34
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

Rest-and-digest response; Helps the body relax, recuperate, and prepare for future action; Nerves come from out of the brainstem

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35
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

Responsible for flight or fight rxns; Blood pressure increase, heart rate increase, etc; Nerves come from out of the spine; Balance between the parasympathetic and sympathetic determines the state of organs at a given time

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36
Q

Afferent nerves

A

Carries information into a region of interest; Dorsal spinal nerves are afferent as they carry sensory signals to the spinal cord

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37
Q

Efferent nerves

A

Carries information away from a region of interest;Ventral spinal nerves are efferent as they carry motor signals away from the spinal cord

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38
Q

Anterior/rostral

A

Toward the front of the head (near eyes)

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39
Q

Posterior/caudal

A

Toward the back of the head for brain; Toward the ground for spinal cord

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40
Q

Dorsal

A

Towards the top of the head for brain;Towards the back for spinal cord

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41
Q

Ventral

A

Towards the body (down) for brain; Toward the front (belly button) for spinal cord

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42
Q

Medial

A

Towards the middle of the brain (left and right wise)

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43
Q

Lateral

A

Toward the sides of the brain (left and right wise)

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44
Q

Proximal

A

near

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45
Q

Distal

A

Far

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46
Q

Sagittal plane

A

Divides the brain into left and right portions (So you’re looking at the brain from the side)

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47
Q

Coronal plane

A

Divides front (anterior) from back (posterior) (So like you’re looking straight on from the face or back)

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48
Q

Horizontal plane

A

Divides between upper and lower parts (So like you’re looking from the top or from the bottom)

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49
Q

Four Lobes of the Brain

A

Frontal Lobe in front(Executive functioning); Parietal Lobe up top; Temporal Lobe bottom (receives auditory inputs and help in memory formation); Occipital Lobe in back (Crucial for vision)

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50
Q

Cerebral Hemispheres

A

The left and right halves of the forebrain; Contralateral control meaning the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and vice versa

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51
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

A channel that allows axons of the left and right hemispheres to connect; Needed for complex processes

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52
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

The lumpy brain surface made of a thick sheet of tissue, mostly dendrites, cell bodies, and axonal projections of neurons; Is lumpy for more surface area = more brain stuffed into skull

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53
Q

Gyri

A

raised/ridged portion of the cerebral cortex

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54
Q

Sulci

A

Crevices that separate the gyri

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55
Q

Gray matter

A

In the outer layers of the cortex (in brain), inner part of the spinal cord ;darker grayish shade bc they contain a bunch of neuronal bodies and dendrites; Mostly receives and processes info

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56
Q

White matter

A

Found beneath the gray matter in the brain (under the cerebral cortex) and connects diff parts of gray matter together, Found on the outer part of the spinal cord, surrounding the gray matter;Is white bc it is made up of primarily myelinated axons; Mostly transmits info

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57
Q

Hindbrain

A

At the bottom of the brain where it connects to the spinal cord; Regulates essential life functions; includes medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum, pons

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58
Q

Medulla

A

Controls respiration and heart rate; The posterior part of the hindbrain, continuous with the spinal cord

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59
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Controls attention, arousal and sleep; Network of neurons that runs thru the core of the brain stem (thru medulla and pons) and extends into the midbrain

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60
Q

Cerebellum

A

Motor learning and memory; Behind the medulla and pons

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61
Q

Pons

A

Sensory and motor;Above the medulla and links the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

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62
Q

Midbrain

A

Acts as a relay center, integrating sensory info, particularly visual and auditory signals; Also plays role in motor control, alertness, and regulating reflexive movements; includes the Tectum and Tegmentum

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63
Q

Tectum (“roof”)

A

Forms the back part of the midbrain; Superior colliculus-Visual functioning; Inferior colliculus-Auditory functioning

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64
Q

Tegmentum (“floor”)

A

Forms the bulk of the midbrain in front of the tectum;substantia nigra-Critical for movement control and dopamine (Related to parkinsons);Periaqueductal gray-Pain modulation, fear, panic

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65
Q

Diencephalon

A

Positioned deep in brain between the midbrain and the cerebrum, forming part of the forebrain; includes Thalamus and hypothalamus

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66
Q

Thalamus

A

Above the hypothalamus; Sensory relay nuclei; Connects to cortex

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67
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Above pituitary gland; Endocrine (hormone) function; Motivated behaviors (feeding, drinking, temp regulation, sex, sleep)

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68
Q

Forebrain

A

contains the entire cerebrum as well as the telecephalon (cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb) and diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)

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69
Q

Important nuclei within the cerebral hemispheres made of gray matter include

A

Basal ganglia, hippocampus, fornix, limbic system, amygdala

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70
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Surrounds the thalamus, Plays a critical role in control of movement

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71
Q

Hippocampus

A

Important for memory

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72
Q

Fornix

A

Important for memory

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73
Q

Limbic system

A

Involved in emotion and learning

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74
Q

Amygdala

A

Involved in emotional regulation

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75
Q

Blood brain barrier

A

A semi-permeable barrier that separates the circulating blood from the brain and CNS; Protects the brain from toxins in the blood, but also lets in nutrients; Capillaries are tight and not leaky (like in the body because there are endothelial cells in the brain’s capillaries that are tightly joined together, supported by astrocytes

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76
Q

Meninges

A

3 protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord, providing a cushioning and supportive layer (Dura mater, arachnoid membrane, pia mater)

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77
Q

Dura mater

A

A tough outer layer

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78
Q

Arachnoid Membrane

A

Middle layer that makes an open space called the subarachnoid space; Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid to protect the brain

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79
Q

Pia Mater

A

Layer that is tight against the brain and encloses the CSF

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80
Q

Ventricles

A

A system of four interconnected, fluid filled cavities within the brain that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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81
Q

Lateral ventricles

A

One in each hemisphere

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82
Q

Third ventricle

A

In middle of brain below the lateral ventricles

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83
Q

Fourth ventricle

A

Between the brainstem and the cerebellum, connecting to the spinal cord

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84
Q

Choroid Plexus

A

A specialized membrane that lines lateral ventricles and produces CSF by filtering blood; Also helps filter out waste

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85
Q

CSF

A

Fluid that surrounds and cushions the brain and spinal cord to protect them; It also helps regulate intracranial pressure, delivers nutrients, and removes waste products; Circulates through the ventricles, around the brain and spinal cord, and is eventually reabsorbed into the bloodstream

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86
Q

The major function of Schwann cells is

A

myelination of axons in the PNS

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87
Q

The major function of oligrodendrocytes is

A

myelination of axons in the CNS

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88
Q

The plane that divides the brain into left and right halves is called the

A

sagittal

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89
Q

Which glial cells interact with blood vessels?

A

Astrocytes

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90
Q

The efferent nerves of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) go to

A

various organs in the body

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91
Q

What would be the consequence for a patient with damage to the eighth (VIII) cranial nerve?

A

impaired hearing

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92
Q

What does the nervous system coordinate in the body?

A

It coordinates every aspect of the functioning of the body, from automatic processes like heart rate to complex emotions and behavioral responses.

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93
Q

How many neurons are in the nervous system?

A

Nearly 100 billion neurons.

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94
Q

What are the three main structural elements of a typical neuron?

A

Dendrites, a cell body (soma), and an axon.

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95
Q

What are the four functional elements of neurons?

A

Input zone (dendrites and cell body), integration zone (axon hillock), conduction zone (axon), and output zone (axon terminals).

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96
Q

What are the functions of glial cells?

A

They myelinate axons, exchange nutrients with neurons, remove cellular debris, and participate in information processing.

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97
Q

Where does information transmission between neurons occur?

A

Across synapses.

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98
Q

What do axon terminals release in response to an impulse?

A

Neurotransmitters.

99
Q

What does the nervous system consist of?

A

The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic systems).

100
Q

What is the function of the somatic nervous system?

A

It connects muscles and sensory systems to the central nervous system.

101
Q

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

A

It connects internal organs to the central nervous system.

102
Q

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

103
Q

What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

It prepares body systems for action.

104
Q

What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

It tends toward relaxation.

105
Q

What are the four major lobes of the cerebral hemispheres?

A

Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.

106
Q

What are the prominent components found within the cerebral hemispheres?

A

Basal ganglia and limbic system.

107
Q

What are the major divisions of the brain?

A

Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

108
Q

What does the forebrain consist of?

A

The telencephalon (cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia) and diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus).

109
Q

What are the prominent parts of the midbrain?

A

Tectum and tegmentum.

110
Q

What does the hindbrain consist of?

A

The cerebellum, medulla, and pons.

111
Q

What protects the brain and spinal cord?

A

The three layers of the meninges: dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.

112
Q

What suspends the brain and spinal cord?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

113
Q

Where is cerebrospinal fluid produced?

A

In the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle.

114
Q

What is the main function of synapses?

A

To communicate information via neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic cell.

115
Q

Name the major transmitter families.

A

Quaternary amines, monoamines, amino acids, neuropeptides, and unconventional transmitters.

116
Q

What is the first identified neurotransmitter?

A

Acetylcholine.

117
Q

What are the two types of effects that drugs can have on synaptic transmission?

A

Agonistic (enhancing) or antagonistic (blocking) effects.

118
Q

What does the presence of a brain receptor for an exogenous drug imply?

A

That the brain makes an endogenous ligand for that receptor.

119
Q

Name three ways drugs can affect presynaptic function.

A

Alteration in transmitter synthesis, alteration in transmitter storage, and alteration in transmitter release.

120
Q

How can drugs affect postsynaptic function?

A

By activating or blocking postsynaptic receptors, altering second messenger activity, altering gene expression, or changing receptor density.

121
Q

What do enkephalins and endorphins do?

A

They bind to opiate receptors and have morphine-like analgesic properties.

122
Q

What is the active ingredient in tobacco, and what receptor does it bind to?

A

Nicotine, which binds to the acetylcholine nicotinic receptor.

123
Q

Describe the two phases of alcohol’s effect on the nervous system.

A

An initial stimulant phase followed by a prolonged depressant phase.

124
Q

What neurotransmission does alcohol antagonize?

A

Glutamatergic neurotransmission.

125
Q

What neurotransmission does alcohol enhance?

A

GABAergic inhibition.

126
Q

What is the active ingredient in marijuana?

A

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

127
Q

What receptor does THC act on?

A

Cannabinoid receptors.

128
Q

What physiological effects does THC produce?

A

Improved mood, pain relief, lowered blood pressure, nausea relief, and improvements in glaucoma.

129
Q

How does nicotine affect the nervous system?

A

It binds to acetylcholine nicotinic receptors, enhancing cognitive performance and activating reward pathways.

130
Q

What is the active ingredient in opium?

A

Morphine.

131
Q

How do amphetamines affect synaptic transmission?

A

They cause the release of dopamine and block the reuptake of dopamine.

132
Q

What neurotransmitter is associated with the effects of cocaine?

A

Dopamine.

133
Q

How do hallucinogenic drugs affect sensory perceptions?

A

They alter or distort existing sensory perceptions.

134
Q

Which neurotransmitter’s receptors do most hallucinogens target?

A

Serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT2A receptors.

135
Q

What are potential outcomes of alcohol abuse on brain function and structure?

A

Impaired motor function, slurred speech, loss of consciousness, coma, and even death. Many effects are reversible after stopping alcohol use.

136
Q

What neurotransmitter is involved in the psychoactive effects of stimulants like nicotine?

A

Acetylcholine.

137
Q

What happens when drugs block reuptake of neurotransmitters?

A

It increases the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, enhancing their effects.

138
Q

What are endogenous opiate peptides?

A

Peptides like enkephalins and endorphins that bind to opiate receptors.

139
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

receptors that are coupled to ion channels and affect the neuron by causing those channels to open, fast and short-lasting effects, used in rapid responses like muscle contraction and sensory processing

140
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

receptors that are associated with signal proteins and G proteins, slower but longer-lasting effects than ionotropic responses

141
Q

Enzymatic deactivation/degradation

A

Excess neurotransmitters are broken down by enzymes

142
Q

What are the three things that can happen to a neurotransmitter after the postsynaptic response

A

Enzymatic degradation, reuptake into the pre-synaptic terminal, Neurotransmitters activate autoreceptors (acts like a break

143
Q

Reuptake

A

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron, then they can be reused

144
Q

autoreceptor

A

a receptor for a synaptic transmitter that is located in the presynaptic membrane, telling the axon terminal how much transmitter has been released

145
Q

large neurotransmitters (neuropeptides)

A

assembled in the cell body, packaged in vesicles, and then transported to the axon terminal

146
Q

small transmitters

A

Synthesized in the cytoplasm of the axon terminal and packaged by the Golgi apparatus

147
Q

amino acids

A

come from food (ex. Glutamate and Gaba)

148
Q

GABA effects on anxiety

A

Lowers anxiety as GABA receptors cause hyperpolarization leading to decrease in neural activity (benzos and alcohol work this way)

149
Q

Monoamines

A

chemicals formed by a change in certain amino acids (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine

150
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction; made from dietary choline; linked to alzheimers

151
Q

monoamine systems

A

Neuronal systems in the brain that produce monoamine neurotransmitters.

152
Q

neuropeptides

A

short chains of amino acids made in the cell body; involved in analgesia and reward system (endorphins); have longer lasting effects compared to small NT

153
Q

Catecholamines

A

dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

154
Q

Indolamines

A

serotonin

155
Q

Glutamate

A

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

156
Q

Agonist

A

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

157
Q

Antagonist

A

drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

158
Q

exogenous substances

A

substances from outside the body

159
Q

endogenous substances

A

substances that naturally occur within the body

160
Q

ligand

A

any substance that binds to a receptor

161
Q

Efficacy

A

the extent to which a drug molecule activates the receptor (agonists have high efficacy, antagonists have low efficacy)

162
Q

Ways that drugs affect presynaptic processes

A

Effects on neurotransmitter production; Effects on neurotransmitter release (ex botox); Effects on neurotransmitter clearance (e.g., reuptake inhibitors)

163
Q

Way drugs alter postsynaptic processes

A

Effects on neurotransmitter receptors.

164
Q

Explain how drug effects on neurotransmitter receptors.

A

receptor antagonists bind directly to postsynaptic receptors to block them from being activated (ex. curare blocks nicotinic ACh receptors found in muscles leading to immediate paralysis); Receptor agonists bind to specific receptors and activate them, mimicking the natural NT at those receptors (ex. LSD at 5-HT2a receptors)

165
Q

Reuptake inhibitors

A

work by blocking the presynaptic system that normally reabsorbs transmitter molecules after their release; This allows the transmitter molecules to stay longer in the synaptic cleft, having a greater effect on the postsynaptic cell

166
Q

Botox effects on neurotransmitter release

A

blocks ACh release from axon terminals near the injection site, causing paralysis

167
Q

What is the resting membrane potential?

A

The resting membrane potential is about -60 mV due to the differential concentrations of ions inside and outside the neuron.

168
Q

Why is the resting membrane potential primarily influenced by potassium (K+) ions?

A

The membrane is primarily permeable to potassium (K+) ions, which move in and out of the neuron to maintain equilibrium.

169
Q

How does the Na+/K+ pump help maintain the resting membrane potential?

A

The Na+/K+ pump actively pumps 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions into the cell to maintain the ionic balance.

170
Q

What happens during hyperpolarization?

A

The membrane becomes more negative, decreasing the likelihood of an action potential.

171
Q

What happens during depolarization?

A

The membrane becomes less negative (closer to zero), increasing the likelihood of an action potential.

172
Q

What is an action potential?

A

An action potential is a rapid change in membrane potential that occurs when a neuron reaches its threshold.

173
Q

What is the threshold for generating an action potential?

A

The threshold is usually around -55 mV.

174
Q

How does an action potential follow the all-or-none principle?

A

Once the threshold is reached, an action potential will always occur with the same strength, regardless of stimulus size.

175
Q

What happens to the membrane potential at the peak of the action potential?

A

The membrane potential approaches +40 mV due to the opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels.

176
Q

What causes the membrane to repolarize after an action potential?

A

Potassium (K+) ions flow out of the cell, restoring the membrane to its resting potential.

177
Q

What is the absolute refractory period?

A

It is the period after an action potential when Na+ channels are inactive and no new action potential can be generated.

178
Q

What is the relative refractory period?

A

After the absolute refractory period, a very strong stimulus may trigger another action potential during this phase.

179
Q

Where do action potentials arise?

A

Action potentials arise at the axon hillock and travel down the axon.

180
Q

What is saltatory conduction?

A

Saltatory conduction is when action potentials jump between the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated axons, speeding up transmission.

181
Q

What happens when an action potential reaches the axon terminal?

A

Voltage-gated calcium channels open, causing neurotransmitter release.

182
Q

What is an EPSP?

A

An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a graded depolarization that increases the chance of an action potential.

183
Q

What is an IPSP?

A

An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is a graded hyperpolarization that decreases the chance of an action potential.

184
Q

How are neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft?

A

Calcium influx triggers synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the cleft.

185
Q

What happens to neurotransmitters after they are released?

A

They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and alter the membrane’s permeability.

186
Q

How are neurotransmitter signals terminated?

A

Neurotransmitter signals are stopped by enzymatic degradation or reuptake.

187
Q

What is a ligand?

A

A ligand is a molecule (like a neurotransmitter or drug) that binds to a receptor, either activating or blocking it.

188
Q

What is spatial summation?

A

Spatial summation occurs when EPSPs and IPSPs from different synapses add up to influence the neuron.

189
Q

What is temporal summation?

A

Temporal summation occurs when multiple signals from the same synapse add up over time.

190
Q

What is the role of voltage-gated calcium channels in synaptic transmission?

A

They allow calcium ions to enter the neuron, triggering neurotransmitter release.

191
Q

How do EPSPs and IPSPs determine if a neuron fires an action potential?

A

If enough EPSPs outweigh IPSPs and the threshold is reached at the axon hillock, an action potential is triggered.

192
Q

What is the role of the sodium-potassium pump?

A

It helps maintain the resting potential by pumping Na+ out and K+ into the cell.

193
Q

Synapse

A

The site where communication happens between neurons.

194
Q

Presynaptic membrane

A

The axon terminal of the presynaptic (transmitting) neuron.

195
Q

Postsynaptic membrane

A

The membrane on the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic (receiving) neuron.

196
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

A gap of about 20-40 nanometers that separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.

197
Q

Transmission at a chemical synapse

A

The process by which an action potential leads to neurotransmitter release and communication between neurons.

198
Q

Steps in Neurotransmission

A
  1. Action potential-AP reaches the terminal
199
Q
  1. voltage-gated calcium channel- opens allowing calcium ions to enter.
A
200
Q
  1. Exocytosis- The influx of calcium ions triggers synaptic vesicles (filled with NT) to fuse with presynaptic membrane. this fusion causes exocytosis of NT into the synaptic cleft
A
201
Q

4.Receptor Activation- The NT diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane. This binding causes ion channels in the postsynaptic neuron to open or close depending on the type of receptor

A
202
Q
  1. Postsynaptic potentials- The binding of NT to the receptors generates EPSPs or IPSPs. EPSPs may lead to another AP if it reaches the threshold
A
203
Q

Cell membrane

A

A lipid-based membrane that blocks the passage of most substances, regulating what enters and exits the cell.

204
Q

Ion channel

A

Proteins embedded in the cell membrane that allow ions to pass in and out of the neuron, helping maintain the electrical charge inside the cell. These channels can either be open all the time or controlled to open and close.

205
Q

Voltage-gated calcium channels

A

Key channels at the presynaptic terminal that allow calcium ions to flow into the neuron in response to an action potential, triggering neurotransmitter release.

206
Q

Resting Membrane Potential

A

The electrical charge difference across the membrane when a neuron is at rest, usually around -60 mV.

207
Q

Distribution of Ions

A

Refers to the concentration of ions inside (intracellular) and outside the neuron (extracellular

208
Q

Intracellular fluid distribution

A

Higher concentration of K+ (potassium ions) and negatively charged proteins (anions).

209
Q

Extracellular fluid

A

Higher concentration of Na+ (sodium ions) and Cl- (chloride ions).

210
Q

Concentration Gradient

A

Ions move from areas of high concentration to low concentration. For example, K+ tends to move out of the neuron, while Na+ tends to move in.

211
Q

Electrical Gradient

A

Ions are influenced by their charge: opposite charges attract, and like charges repel. Positive ions (Na+ and K+) are attracted inside the cell because the inside is negatively charged.

212
Q

Selective Permeability

A

The neuron’s membrane allows some ions to pass more easily than others. K+ can pass freely, while Na+ is blocked during resting conditions.

213
Q

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A

Pumps 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions into the neuron, using energy (ATP). This helps maintain the resting potential by keeping Na+ high outside and K+ high inside.

214
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

An increase in membrane potential meaning the inside of the neuron becomes more negative in comparison to the outside (like from -65 at resting potential to -75); makes it less likely for AP

215
Q

IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)

A

synaptic potential that makes a postsynaptic neuron less likely to generate an action potential

216
Q

Depolarization

A

The inside of the neuron becomes less negative; like from -65 to -50, needed for AP

217
Q

EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)

A

depolarizing graded potential in postsynaptic neuron in response to activation of excitatory synapse; depolarizes the membrane, increasing the chance of AP

218
Q

Graded Response

A

Responses that vary depending on the strength of the stimulus. Occur in the dendrites and soma and weaken as they spread from the source (decremental); response from hyperpolarization or depolarization

219
Q

Action Potential

A

A rapid, large change in membrane potential triggered when the neuron reaches a threshold (~-55 mV). It follows the all-or-none principle and propagates down the axon.

220
Q

Voltage-Gated Ion Channel

A

Ion channels that open or close in response to changes in membrane voltage. Na+ channels open during depolarization, allowing Na+ to enter, followed by K+ channels opening to repolarize the cell.

221
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

The process in myelinated axons where action potentials jump from one node of Ranvier to the next, increasing the speed of transmission.

222
Q

All-or-None Law

A

Once the threshold is reached, an action potential fires at full strength. The size of the action potential is always the same, regardless of stimulus strength.

223
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Chemicals that transmit signals across the synapse to another neuron. Examples include acetylcholine (Ach), dopamine, glutamate, and GABA.

224
Q

Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Membranes

A

The presynaptic membrane releases neurotransmitters, and the postsynaptic membrane receives them, leading to EPSPs or IPSPs.

225
Q

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP vs. IPSP)

A

EPSP: Depolarizes the neuron, increasing the chance of an action potential.

226
Q

IPSP: Hyperpolarizes the neuron, decreasing the chance of an action potential.

A
227
Q

Temporal Summation

A

Multiple EPSPs or IPSPs from the same synapse add up if they occur in rapid succession.

228
Q

Spatial Summation

A

EPSPs or IPSPs from different synapses arrive at the same time and combine to influence the neuron.

229
Q

AP peak

A

the membrane potential approaches +40 mV bc voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing sodium ions to flood into the neuron; these sodium channels close rapidly, and the K+ channels open, letting K+ ions to leave the cell; the outward flow of K+ repolarizes the membrane back to its resting state; inside of cell is more positive than outside

230
Q

decremental vs. non decremental

A

Graded responses have decremental speed meaning that as the response spreads away from the sight of stimulation it gets weaker; AP has non-decremental meaning that it does not get weaker

231
Q

Threshold

A

when neurons reach -55 mV it triggers an AP, so in order for an AP to be triggered the membrane needs to depolarize

232
Q

APs result in the release of neurotransmitters at the _______, which can then create graded responses in the next neuron

A

axon terminal

233
Q

What is the distribution of Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, and proteins inside of the cell at resting potential.

A

Na+ few; K+ many; Cl- few; Ca2+ few; Proteins many

234
Q

What is the distribution of Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, and proteins in extracellular fluid at resting potential.

A

Na+ man; K+ few; Cl- man; Ca2+ many; Proteins few

235
Q

A neuron can reach threshold if many EPSPs arrive at the axon hillock at the same time, but from different locations. This process is referred to as ​

A

Spatial summation

236
Q

The most important difference between Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and excitatory postsynaptic potentials is their:

A

direction of membrane polarization

237
Q

The form of conduction that is used by myelinated axons is called​

A

Saltatory conduction

238
Q

The release of neurotransmitter molecules from terminals is triggered by​

A

calcium ions entering the neuron

239
Q

When a neurotransmitter molecule binds to an ionotropic receptor, the​

A

associated ion channel opens or closes

240
Q

The change in membrane potential from -60mv to -70mv would be

A

a type of hyperpolarization

241
Q

T/F Negatively charged atoms (anions) are drawn to the intracellular fluid

A

t

242
Q

T/F Do the concentration gradient and the electrostatic pressure/gradient encourage Na+ ions to enter resting neurons

A

t

243
Q

During an action potential, the change in membrane potential caused by sodium ions entering the neuron triggers the

A

opening of potassium channels

Brain and Behavior (3 decks)

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