Exam 3 Flashcards
this disorder is characterized by repeated and lengthy immersion in obsessions, compulsions, or both
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
these persistent thoughts usually center on “unacceptable” thoughts that are disturbing to those who experience them
obsessions
these persistent behaviors are repeated as a means to reduce or prevent distress or relieve anxiety, shame, or guilt
compulsions
this disorder is characterized by depressed emotions observed in major depressive disorder along with elevated moods and changes in activity and energy
bipolar disorder
mania is
extreme highs
lows are
extreme depressions
what is an SSRI
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
how do SSRIs work?
increase serotonin levels in the brain by blocking the reuptake of serotonin
this drug works by binding the 5HT1A receptor
SSRIs
suppress exaggerated stress responses and has a calming effect
SSRIs
this disorder is characterized by profound sadness, diminished pleasure, decreased motivation, cognitive slowing, lethargy, and thoughts of suicide
depression
low levels of serotonin & norepinephrine at critical synapses in brain leads to
depression
diminished levels of BDNF are found in these patients
depressed
Involved in neuronal development, critical for neuronal survival and adaptive functions
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor
in depression this is associated with lack of concentration or other cognitive abilities
Prefrontal cortex
this part of the brain is smaller in those with depression
Hippocampus
this part of the brain as reciprocal connections with the prefrontal cortex and amygdala and when atrophied there is likely to be symptoms of depression
hippocampus
this says that the condition of neural networks (rather than a specific chemical imbalance) has the most direct impact on moods
network hypothesis of depression
the neurotransmitter targeted in depression treatments
serotonin
larger lateral ventricles
brain change in patients with schizophrenia
smaller temporal and frontal lobes
brain change in patients with schizophrenia
misaligned neurons in the hipposcampus
brain change in patients with schizophrenia
slightly smaller thalamic volume (all sensory systems cross here minus olfaction)
brain change in patients with schizophrenia
significant loss of gray matter (dendrites & cell bodies) during adolescence
brain change in patients with schizophrenia
What neurotransmitter is implicated in drugs meant to help those with schizophrenia
dopamine
abnormal behaviors that are present in those with schizophrenia BUT NOT in healthy individuals
positive symptoms
delusions & hallucinations are
positive symptoms
associated with diminishment or absence of normal emotional responses or thought processes that are seen in healthy individuals
negative symptoms
postive implies
added on
negative implies
taken away
this syndrome is due to long term use of alcohol
Korsakoff’s syndrome
a neurological disorder that causes memory loss and other cognitive impairments
Korsakoff’s syndrome
region of the brain primarily responsible for forming new memories, learning, and spatial navigation, essentially acting as a key part of the brain’s memory system
hippocampus
the memory of facts, data, and events
declarative memories
the memory of how to do things
procedural memories
What ion blocks the pore of the NMDA receptor at resting state?
Mg2+ ions
What ions can flow through the NMDA receptor once it’s opened
When an NMDA receptor is open, primarily sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+) ions
What role does Serotonin play in sensitization with Aplysia
serotonin is released when the stimulus is shocked -> the facilitating interneurons release serotonin, which causes siphon sensory neurons to release increased amounts of neurotransmitters -> this increase in NTs shows a stronger than normal withdrawal
acting as a key modulatory neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic transmission between sensory and motor neurons, leading to increased excitability and facilitating the gill-withdrawal reflex when a noxious stimulus is applied
the role Serotonin plays in sensitization with Aplysia
events increasing the likelihood of a recurring response
reinforcers
events decreasing the likelihood of a recurring response
punishments
to give
postive
to take
negative
giving treats to a dog for good behavior is an example of what operant conditioning
postive reinforcer
the car beeping stops when you buckle the seatbelt is an example of what operant conditioning
negative reinforcer
taking an Advil or receiving a spanking is an example of what operant conditioning
positive punishment
being grounded is an example of what operant conditioning
negative punishment
learning by associating an involuntary response with a stimulus
classical conditioning
learning by associating a voluntary behavior with its consequences
operant conditioning
the emotional processor of the brain
limbic system
a circuit of brain areas involved in emotional processing
limbic system
the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cingulate make up this brain region
limbic system
key brain area associated with emotional responses within temporal lobes
amygdala
role of hippocampus in emotional expression
emotional response affects memory
anterior cingulate cortex, insula, nucleus accumbens
cluster of brain structures associated with emotional experience
What region plays a role in reactive-impulsive aggression
limbic system structures (mostly amygdala)
in fear conditioning, this part of the amygdala helps create the association
lateral amygdala
in fear conditioning, this part of the amygdala helps guide the behavioral response
central amygdala
cortisol is released from where
the adrenal glands
the second-tier of our stress response
HPA axis
slower process that helps to amplify the stress signal
HPA axis
in this stress response the amygdala, locus coeruleus, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus are activated
HPA axis
this has been found to play a role in inhibiting aggression
orbitofrontal cortex
keeps cognitive control and inhibits aggression
orbitofrontal cortex
emotions start with a physiological response which are then perceived by CNS to create conscious emotional feelings
James-Lange Theory of emotion
physiological & conscious components of emotion are actually independent. A physiological arousal AT THE SAME TIME as the emotional expression
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
context-dependent cognitive interpretation of the arousal. A general arousal is converted based on assessment of surroundings
Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor theory) theory of emotions
the six basic emotions that are innate t humans suggesyed by Ekman
happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, and disgust
a region in the hypothalamus of the brain primarily responsible for promoting sleep
ventrolateral preotic area
increases activity during slow wave sleep
ventrolateral preotic area
stimulating this area would likely induce sleepiness or even directly trigger sleep onset due to its high concentration of sleep-active neurons that inhibit wake-promoting regions when activated.
ventrolateral preotic area
difficulty in initiating sleep, maintaining sleep, or both
insomnia
those who have insomnia would most likely be prescribed a benzodiazepine, and this type of drug is what
a GABA agonist
waking episodes during sleep characterized by pauses in breathing or appearance of shallow breaths
sleep apnea
uncontrollable bouts of sleep in waking hours. symptoms include excessive sleepiness, intermittent and uncontrollable bouts of sleep in day time, muscular weakness or paralysis
narcolepsy
altered receptors for this leads to this not being able to bind leading to daytime sleepiness
the involvement of orexin in narcolepsy
How does caffeine lead us to avoid sleepiness
an adenosine antagonist
this decreases neural activation and facilitates the onset of sleep
adenosine
this NT is found in the raphe nuclei
serotonin
this NT is present in cholinergic systems in the brainstem and basal forebrain. PPT nuclei & LDT nuclei
acetylcholine
NT associated with wakefulness
acetylcholine
NT present in the locus coeruleus
norepinephrine
these 2 NTs are silent during REM
serotonin & norepinephrine
this hormone is secreted from the pineal gland
melatonin
are high during wakefulness & lower during NREM; no activity during REM sleep
norepinephrine & serotonin
levels rise at night, peak levels around 3-4 AM
melatonin
how does light impact levels of melatonin
darkness causes the pineal gland to produce melatonin
a neural pathway that directly connects the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus
retinohypothalamic tract
what portion of the hypothalamus receives light
stimulation
SCN
NREM has how many stages of sleep
3
transition from beta waves to alpha waves, then to slower theta waves, EMG shows muscles relaxing and EOG shows slow eye movement
Stage 1 of NREM
presense of sleep-spindles and k-complexes
Stage 2 of NREM sleep
presense of slow delta waves
Slow wave sleep (Stage 3/4)
decreased muscle tone, burst of eye movements, EEG looks similar to awake stage
REM sleep
as the night progresses, the length of the ____ periods increases and the amount of ____ decreases
REM; SWS
amphetamine and MDMA are what type of drugs
CNS stimulants
reduce, refine, replace
3 Rs of animal research
blocks or decreases the effects of the neurotransmitters
antagonist
mimics or enhances effects of a neurotransmitters
agonist
what division of our nervous system is the sympathetic nervous system
autonomic–> periphreal
blocks adenosine receptors
caffeine
caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine are
CNS stimulants
blocks adenosine receptors
caffeine
activates nicotinic cholinergic receptors
nicotine
blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
cocaine
increased heart rate and elevated blood pressure; increased metabolism
nicotine
blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
cocaine
effects include euphoria, increased energy, alterness
cocaine
binds to transporters which leaves the neurotransmitters in the synapse for longer periods of time
cocaine
indirect catecholamine agonist; blocks reuptake and enhances release
amphetamine
produces enhanced sensory perceptions and desires for social interactions
MDMA (Ecstasy)
psychological effects similar to cocaine: sense of well-being, alertness, and diminished fatigue
amphetamine
amphetamine and MDMA are what type of drugs
CNS stimulants
Alcohol is what type of drug
CNS depressant
in low doses it can improve mood and increase confidence. may also can increase drowsiness, impair judgment and muscle coordination
alcohol
high doses can create slow and irregular breathing patterns; cause extreme confusion and disorientation
alcohol
inhibits glutamate transmission
alcohol
enhances the effect of GABA
alcohol
highly addictive, causes a sense of euphoria, severe withdraw
opium
Regulates pain, reward, and addiction.
why humans have opioid receptors
leads to hallucinations, illusions, alterations in perception of time and space
LSD
a partial serotonin agonist
LSD
the primary psychoactive ingredient of marijuana is?
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
medicinal use of marijuana includes
treatment of nausea and appetite stimulation in AIDS and cancer patients
altered sensations, increased appetite, euphoria, relaxation, and disinhibition
effects of marijuana
effects may also include impaired memory and motor performance; cognitive impairments
marijuana
can inhibit dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, glutamate, and GABA
cannabis
this drug activates cannabinoid receptors that are located in various regions of the brain
cannabis
where is Na+ found
outside
where is K+ found
inside
where is Ca2+ found
outside
where is Cl- found
outside
All sensory systems go through the thalamus first before their respective cortex except
which sense
olfaction
the two structures that are important for our emotional and hedonic responses to food
hypothalamus and amygdala
fighting, feelings, feeding, and fornicating
the 4 Fs of the Hypothalamus
process whereby environmental energy is converted into a neural signal that the brain is able to make sense of
sensory transduction
the only cells that are able to fire action potentials in the eye
ganglion cells
the synapse formed between a motor neuron’s axon terminal and the motor end plate
neuromuscular junction
the reason as to why muscles contract
the neuromuscular junction
muscle spindles do what?
muscle spindles detect changes in muscle length (stretch),
majority of neurons can be found where
the cerebellum
the cerebellum helps control what
movement coordination, balance, and muscle tone
the visual system is connected to what thalamic nuclei
LGN
the auditory system is connected to what thalamic nuclei
MGN
the somatosensory system is connected to what thalamic nuclei
VPL
the central taste pathways is connected to what thalamic nuclei
VPM
the motor system is connected to what thalamic nuclei
VA/VL
participates in the initiation of eating
lateral hypothalamus
the brain’s mechanism for satiety
ventromedial hypothalamus
Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital
lobes of cerebral cortex
