Exam 1 Flashcards
The variable manipulated?
independent variable
the variable under investigation
independent variable
the variable being measured
dependent variable
a testable scientific prediction
hypotheses
an organism’s genetic makeup (DNA)
genotype
physical/observable characteristics
phenotype
having brown hair is?
a phenotype
Having blue eyes is?
genotype
species that are uniquely adapted to their environments tend to have higher survival rates than species that are not
natural selection
those that survive produce more offspring than those that are less well adapted, increasing proportion of organisms in succeeding generations with those adaptive traits
rule of natural selection
in genetic engineering, a specific targeted gene is made inoperative to determine the impact on the animal’s function
gene knockout models
certain human genes can be introduced to add a disorder not normally seen in rodents
gene knockin models
reduce, refine, replace
3 Rs of animal research
do you need that many animals?
reduce
minimize pain
refine
do you need to use animals?
replace
what two types of cells produce myelin for the nervous system
oligodendrocytes and schwann cells
produces myelin in the CNS
oligodendrocytes
produces myelin in the PNS
schwann cells
star-like bodies that transports nutrients from blood to neurons
astrocytes
helps in the blood-bain barrier
astrocytes
protects the release of K and brings exposed K back in K+ spatial buffering
astrocytes
innate immunity cells
microglia
cellular clean up crew that monitors the extracellular environment; searching for dead cells and debris
microglia
accepting nerves
afferent
exiting nerves
efferent
when you touch a hot stove this is
sensory neurons afferent to the CNS
when you think about swatting a fly
motor neurons efferent from the CNS
what division of our nervous system is the sympathetic nervous system
autonomic–> periphreal
toward the face or front
anterior
toward the back or behind
posterior
toward the head or above
superior
toward the feet or below
inferieor
toward the middle
medial
toward the edge
lateral
toward the top of the brain or the back of the spinal cord
dorsal
toward the bottom of the brain or the front of the spinal cord
ventral
toward the front of the brain or the top of the spinal cord
rostral
toward the back of the brain or the bottom of the spinal cord
caudal
this cut will create a left and a right
sagittal plane
this cut will divide into a top & bottom
horizontal plane
this cut will divide into a front & a back
coronal plane
part of the brain located in the brainstem of the hindbrain
cerebellum
“little brain”; regulates motor coordination and balance
cerebellum
processes visual info so that the head can be oriented to the visual present
superior colliculus
I turn my head to view the bird that just flew by is what part of the midbrain working
superior colliculus
processes auditory info so that the body can be oriented to the sound present
inferior colliculus
I hear a dog growl near by and I turn toward the sound is what part of the midbrain working
inferior colliculus
composed of cell bodies
gray matter
composed of myelinated axons that allows parts of the brain to be connected
white matter
parts of a neuron found in white matter
myelinated axons
parts of a neuron found in gray matter
soma & dentrites
All sensory systems go through the thalamus first before their respective cortex except
which sense
olfaction
fighting, feelings, feeding, and fornicating
the 4 Fs of the Hypothalamus
a part of the limbic system important for the collection of nuclei important for emotional regulation
hippocampus
part of the brain most associated with learning and memory
hippocampus
three-layered structure which covers the brain and spinal cord
meninges
outermost layer of meninges; underneath the skull
dura mater
layer of meninges underneath the dura with blood vessels
arachnoid mater
innermost layer of the meninges that adheres closely to the brain
pia mater
regulates the body’s stress response. made up of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands, which work together to release hormones into the blood in response to nervous system stimulation
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA Axis)
Release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla. CRH from the hypothalamus to the pituitary that then releases ACTH that travels to the adrenal gland then releases stress hormones
HPA Axis
Na+
Sodium
K+
Potassium
Ca2+
Calcium
Cl-
Chloride
where is Na+ found
outside
where is K+ found
inside
where is Ca2+ found
outside
where is Cl- found
outside
if the diameter of the axon is wider during AP propagation (greater) what happens
there is a faster conduction velocity
if a nueron is more myelinated during AP propagation what happens
faster conduction velocity
Two mechanisms enable the
resting membrane potential to depolarize
toward the threshold for action potential
temporal & spatial summation
requires multiple presynaptic neurons, each altering
the membrane potential
spatial summation
involves the rapid firing of presynaptic
neurons that build on graded potentials
to depolarize toward the action potential
threshold.
temporal summation
APs very close together in time contributes to more EPSP
temporal summation
APs has to make a connection with others in different locations
spatial summation
dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, seretonin
monoamine
dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine are what type of monoamines?
catecholamines
produced in the substantia nigra & the ventral tegmental area
dopamine
involved in movement and reward systems
dopamine
produced in the locus coeruleus
norepinephrine
involved in increased vigilance, focused attention and enhanced energy
norepinephrine
released from the adrenal glands
epinephrine
Most prominent in fight or flight. similar in action of norepinephrine
epinephrine
produced in the raphe nuclei
serotonin
synthesized from tryprophan (a dietary amino acid)
serotonin
involved in mood regulation, sleep/wake cycles, temperature regulation, sexual activity, and aggression
serotonin
primary excitatory signaling
glutamate
primary inhibitory signaling
GABA
mimics or enhances effects of a neurotransmitters
agonist
blocks or decreases the effects of the neurotransmitters
antagonist
tendency to bind to a receptor/target
affinity
ability to have an effect; produce a desired effect
efficacy
T/F you can have high affinity and low efficacy
true
T/F you can have low affinity and high efficacy
false
serotonin is what type of monoamine
indolamine
Small molecule neurotransmitters are primarily synthesized within where
the presynaptic terminal
what is synthesized in the cell body and then transported down the axon to the terminal
peptides
synthesis location = the synapse
small molecule neurotransmitters
synthesis location = the cell body and transported to the synaptic terminal
peptides
caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine are
CNS stimulants
blocks adenosine receptors
caffeine
activates nicotinic cholinergic receptors
nicotine
blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
cocaine
increased heart rate and elevated blood pressure; increased metabolism
nicotine
blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
cocaine
effects include euphoria, increased energy, alterness
cocaine
binds to transporters which leaves the neurotransmitters in the synapse for longer periods of time
cocaine
indirect catecholamine agonist; blocks reuptake and enhances release
amphetamine
produces enhanced sensory perceptions and desires for social interactions
MDMA (Ecstasy)
psychological effects similar to cocaine: sense of well-being, alertness, and diminished fatigue
amphetamine
amphetamine and MDMA are what type of drugs
CNS stimulants
Alcohol is what type of drug
CNS depressant
in low doses it can improve mood and increase confidence. may also can increase drowsiness, impair judgment and muscle coordination
alcohol
high doses can create slow and irregular breathing patterns; cause extreme confusion and disorientation
alcohol
inhibits glutamate transmission
alcohol
enhances the effect of GABA
alcohol
highly addictive, causes a sense of euphoria, severe withdraw
opium
Regulates pain, reward, and addiction.
why humans have opioid receptors
leads to hallucinations, illusions, alterations in perception of time and space
LSD
a partial serotonin agonist
LSD
the primary psychoactive ingredient of marijuana is?
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
medicinal use of marijuana includes
treatment of nausea and appetite stimulation in AIDS and cancer patients
altered sensations, increased appetite, euphoria, relaxation, and disinhibition
effects of marijuana
effects may also include impaired memory and motor performance; cognitive impairments
marijuana
can inhibit dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, glutamate, and GABA
cannabis
this drug activates cannabinoid receptors that are located in various regions of the brain
cannabis
is when the need for a drug to maintain physiological functions
dependence
2 types of dependence
physical & psychological
taking a substance to alleviate the pains of withdrawls
an example of physical dependence
taking a drug to maintain how we feel
an example of psychological dependence
is when a reaction to a given drug decreases with repeated exposure
tolerance
higher doses are needed to achieve the same desired effect
drug tolerance
2 types of drug tolerance
behavioral & pharmacodynamic
results from exposure to high drug doses. How the drug impacts the synaptic receptors
pharmacodynamic tolerance
sensitive to behavioral & environmental manipulations –> taking drug in new context raises tolerance
behavioral tolerance
consuming a drug repeatedly in the same environmental setting leads to what type of tolerance
behavioral tolerance
-65/-70 mV is
resting membrane potential of a resting neuron
-55 mV
activation threshold: charge needed for a neuron to fire an action potential
when a neuron reaches -55 mV it will fire an action potential
all or none law
when a neuron fires close to the activation threshold (-55) but goes back to baseline
depolarization
a depolarization is also a
EPSP
when a neuron’s charge is below resting potential
hyperpolarization
a hyperpolarization is also a
IPSP
at activation threshold what happens
vgNa+ channels open
when vgNa+ channels open what happens
the positively charged ion floods into the cell
when do vgK+ channels open?
at +30 mV
when do vgNa+ channels close?
at +40 mV
when vgK+ channels open what happens to K+ inside the cell
it rushes outside of the cell due to concentration and voltage gradients causing the neuron to repolarize back to resting state
The period in which no AP can occur (activation threshold to +40 mV)
absolute refractory period
The neuron may fire another AP but will have to jump from a hyperpolarized state
relative refractory period
when an AP reaches the axon terminal what happens
vgCa2+ channels open
what happens when vgCa2+ channels open
the ion will rush into the cell and depolarizing the cell and allows for the release of neurotransmitters to reach the post synaptic membrane
how do we get out of the relative refractory period?
the sodium-potassium (Na+K+) pump
how does the Na+K+ pump function?
3 Na+ ions are pumped out of the cell, and 2 K+ ions are pumped into the cell
