Exam 3 Flashcards
What is leadership?
The process of guiding and directing the
behavior of people in the work
environment
Informal leadership
Unofficial leadership accorded to a person by other members of the organization
Formal leadership
Officially sanctioned leadership based on the authority of a formal position
Managers vs. Leaders
Managers
* Advocate for stability and the status quo
* Management process: Planning and budgeting; Organizing and staffing; Controlling and problem solving
Leaders
* Advocate for change and new approaches to problems
* Leadership process: Setting a direction for the organization; Aligning people with that direction; Motivating people to action
Timeline of Leadership Research
- Trait theories (1920-1945): What traits do leaders have that non-leaders do not?
- Behavioral theories (1948-1961): How do leaders behave compared to non-leaders?
- Contingency theories (1969-1989): How do leaders adapt to situations and followers?
- Relational theories (1999-present): How do leaders relate to followers?
Leadership Trait theory
What traits do leaders have that non-leaders do not?
- The “Great Man” Theory
Traits that make it more likely that someone becomes a leader:
- Intelligence
- Emotional intelligence
- Extraversion
- Narcissism
- Psychopathy
- Tall
- Male
Autocratic leadership
Behavioral leadership; A style of leadership in which the leader uses strong, directive actions to control the rules, regulations, activities, and relationship in the work
Pros & Cons of Autocratic leadership
Pros:
* Quick decision making
* Clearly defined structure
Cons:
* Followers highly dependent on leader
* Followers prone to aggression when leader absent
Democratic Leadership
A style of leadership in which the leader uses interaction and collaboration with followers to direct the work and work environment
Pros & Cons of Democratic leadership
Pros:
* Greater follower engagement and creativity
* Lower attrition
Cons:
* Time-consuming decision making
* Poor group decision making (groupthink, etc.)
Laissez-faire leadership
A style of leadership in which the leader has a hands-off approach
Pros & Cons of laissez-faire leadership
Pros:
* Encourages follower
independence
* Allows followers to use their expertise
Cons:
* Increased conflict among followers
* Unfair workload allocation among followers
Production-Oriented vs. Employee-Oriented
Production-Oriented: This approach prioritizes the work environment with a focus on achieving tasks, meeting goals, and completing work efficiently.
Employee-Oriented: This approach focuses on building relationships within the work unit, emphasizing the well-being, needs, and personal growth of employees.
Initiating Structure vs. Consideration
Initiating Structure: This approach focuses on defining, organizing, and structuring work tasks, roles, and communication. Leaders emphasize clear organizational patterns and productivity by getting things done.
Consideration: This approach emphasizes interpersonal relationships, fostering a warm, friendly environment with mutual trust and respect among team members.
Leadership: Contingency theories
How do leaders adapt to situations and followers?
Leadership: Relational theories (1999-present):
How do leaders relate to followers?
Leader-Member Exchange: Leaders form different
relationships with followers (members), creating two types of follower groups:
In-group:
* Receive more responsibilities,
rewards, and attention
* Managed more informally
Out-group:
* Receive fewer responsibilities,
rewards, and attention
* Managed more formally
What is followership?
- Process of being guided and directed by a leader in the work environment
- Followers are:
- Passive or active
- Critical or non-critical thinkers
The process of guiding and directing the behavior of people in the work environment is
________:
A. Delegation
B. Teamwork
C. Management
D. Leadership
D. Leadership
Which of the following is NOT a type of follower?
A. Sheep
B. Yes people
C. Happy
D. Alienated
C. Happy
The ________ era of leadership research sought to answer the question “How do leaders behave compared to non-leaders?”:
A. Behavioral theories
B. Contingency theories
C. Relational theories
D. Trait theories
A. Behavioral theories
As a leader, Michael focuses on nurturing friendly, warm working relationships. What leadership behavior is Michael demonstrating?
A. Consideration
B. Production-oriented
C. Autocratic
D. Initiating structure
A. Consideration
What is conflict? What are the two types?
What is Conflict?
* Any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties
- Functional conflict: Healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people
- Dysfunctional conflict: Unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more people
What Are the Types of Group Conflict?
* Inter-organizational conflict:
* Inter-group conflict:
* Intra-group conflict:
- Inter-organizational conflict: Conflict that occurs between two or more organizations
- Inter-group conflict: Conflict that occurs between groups or teams in an organization
- Intra-group conflict: Conflict that occurs within groups or teams
Inter-role conflict
A person’s experience of conflict among the multiple roles in their life
Intra-role conflict
Conflict that occurs within a single role
Person-role conflict
Conflict that occurs when a person in a role is expected to perform behaviors that clash with their personal values
nonaction management style
Doing nothing in hopes that a conflict will disappear
secrecy management style
Attempting to hide a conflict or issue that has the potential to create conflict
Due Process Nonaction management style
Procedure set up to address conflicts that is so costly, time-consuming, or personally risky that no one will use it
Character Assassination management style
Attempt to label or discredit an opponent
Appealing to Superordinate Goals
An organizational goal that is more important to both parties in a conflict than their individual or group goals
Expanding Resources management style
get more resources
Changing Personnel management style
remove one or both parties
Changing Structure management style
Put a neutral third party in the middle
Confronting and Negotiating management style
Distributive (win-lose) or integrative (win-win) negotiations
When should you use Avoiding: Uncooperative & Unassertive management style?
Use when:
* The issue is trivial
* People need to cool down
* Others can resolve the conflict more effectively
When should you use Accommodating: Cooperative & Unassertive management style?
Use when:
* You are wrong and/or losing
* Harmony and stability are the most important concerns
* You can build social capital for later use
When should you use Competing: Uncooperative & Assertive management style?
Use when:
* Quick, decisive action is necessary (emergencies, etc.)
* You know you are right on a vital issue
* Unpopular actions need implementing (cost-cutting, etc.)
When should you use Collaborating: Cooperative & Assertive management style?
Use when:
* Both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised
* You need to gain commitment through consensus
* Feelings have interfered with a relationship
When should you use Compromising: The Middle Ground management style?
Use when:
* Goals are important but not worth the effort or potential disruption of more assertive modes
* Opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals
* Collaboration or competition is unsuccessful
What is negotiation
Distributive bargaining:
* A negotiation approach in which the
goals of the parties are in conflict and
each party seeks to maximize its
resources
* Win-Lose
Integrative negotiation:
* A negotiation approach in which the
parties’ goals are not seen as
mutually exclusive, but the focus is on
both sides reaching their objectives
* Win-Win
What Are the Elements of Negotiation?
- Interests: Needs, desires, concerns, or fears – things one cares about or wants; Depend on the individual
- Rights: May be formalized by law or contract; May be informal, like socially accepted standards of behavior
- Power: The ability to influence another person
Difficult Negotiators: Long Pauser
- Will not answer immediately
- Appears to give comments substantial thoughts with long silences
- Hopes silence will get the other side to reveal additional information
Difficult Negotiators: Mocker
Mocks and sneers at the other party’s proposals to anger the other side so that they will say something they may later regret
Difficult Negotiator: Interrogator
- Challenges all comments with searching questions meant to suggest that the other party has not done their homework
- Contests any answers and asks the opposition to explain further what they mean
Difficult Negotiator: Sheep’s Clothing
Appears to be reasonable while making impossible demands
Difficult Negotiator: Divide-and-Conqueror
- Produces dissension within the other party to create internal conflict
- Allies with one member of the other team and tries to play him or her off against the other members of the team
Difficult Negotiator: Dummy
Pretends to be dense and by doing so exasperates the
opposition in hopes of drawing more information or lulling the opponent into a false sense of superiority
Healthy, constructive disagreement between two or
more people is ________:
A. Friction
B. Dysfunctional conflict
C. Teamwork
D. Functional conflict
D. Functional conflict
Which of the following is NOT anelement of negotiation?
A. Power
B. Rights
C. Authority
D. Interests
C. Authority
Greg’s subordinates are havingan argument. Greg does nothingand hopes it goes away. What conflict management technique
is Greg using?
A. Nonaction
B. Secrecy
C. Character assassination
D. Expanding resources
A. Nonaction
Janet and Michael are negotiating. Every time Michael says something, Janet sits in silence and does not say anything in response. What type of difficult negotiator is Janet?
A. Dummy
B. Long pauser
C. Mocker
D. Sheep’s clothing
B. Long pauser
Organizational Culture
A pattern of basic assumptions that are considered valid and that are taught to new members as the way to perceive, think, and feel in the organization
Artifacts
Symbols of culture in the physical and social work environments
* Personal enactment
* Ceremonies and rites
* Stories
* Rituals
* Symbols
Values (espoused vs enacted)
A person’s inherent beliefs of what should or should not be
- Espoused – what members of an organization say they value
- Enacted – values reflected in the way individuals actually behave
Assumptions
Deeply held beliefs that guide behavior and tell members of an organization how to perceive situations and people
The iceberg of organizational culture (most superficial to deep)
Artifacts, Values, then Assumptions
Clan culture
Tradition, loyalty, personal commitment, extensive
socialization, teamwork, self- management, and social influence (ex: pottery barn)
entrepreneurial culture
high levels of creativity and risk taking (ex: Netflix and Google)
bureaucratic culture
Formality, rules, standard operating procedures, and hierarchical coordination (ex: army)
market culture
Achievement of measurable and demanding goals, especially those that are financial and market-based (ex: amazon)
The Organizational Socialization Process Stage 1: Anticipatory Socialization
Encompasses all of the learning that takes place prior to the newcomer’s first day on the job
* Job ad and application
* Interview process
* Offer and negotiation
* Pre-employment screening
Realism
* Degree to which a newcomer holds realistic expectations about the job and the organization
Congruence
* Between the individual’s abilities and the demands of the job
* Between the individual’s and organization’s values
The Organizational Socialization Process Stage 2: Encounter
Beginning on their first day on the job, newcomers learn the tasks associated with the job, clarify their roles, and establish new relationships at work
* What am I supposed to do all day?
* What is (and isn’t) my job?
* Who do I interact with?
- Task demands = The actual work performed
- Role demands = The expectations placed on newcomers around role ambiguity and conflict
- Interpersonal demands = The interactions and relationships at work
The Organizational Socialization Process Stage 3: Change and Acquisition
- Newcomers begin to master the demands of the job and are now considered organizational insiders
- From “I’m new here” to “I belong here”
- Can now socialize newcomers in turn
Which of the following is NOT a component of organizational culture?
A. Values
B. Artifacts
C. Attitudes
D. Assumptions
C. Attitudes
Apple says they value innovation. This is an example of what type of values?
A. Espoused
B. Written
C. Enacted
D. Technological
A. Espoused
Eleanor’s first day at work is tomorrow. What stage of the newcomer socialization process will begin for Eleanor tomorrow?
A. Anticipatory socialization
B. Change and acquisition
C. Orientation
D. Encounter
D. Encounter
Symbols of culture in the physical and social work environments are:
A. Values
B. Artifacts
C. Assumptions
D. Ceremonies
B. Artifacts
Career
The pattern of work-related experiences that spans the course of a person’s life
What is the New Career Paradigm?
New:
* Discrete exchange
* Occupational excellence
* Organizational empowerment
* Project allegiance
Old:
* Mutual loyalty contract
* One-employer focus
* Top-down firm
* Corporate allegiance
Hollands Theory of Occupational Choice?
Personality characterized by a set of interests and values and…Occupations can also be classified with this typology
Realistic – Doers:
* Like physical skills, practical
problems, working with their hands
Investigative – Thinkers:
* Like ideas, curiosity, tasks
Artistic – Creators:
* Like variety, creativity, self-
expression
Social – Helpers:
* Like people, communication,
working with groups
Enterprising – Persuaders:
* Like leadership, energy, goals
Conventional – Organizers:
* Like detail, organization, rules
What are the phases of the career stage model?
establishment, advancement, maintenance, and withdrawal
Career Stage Challenges: Establishment
- Negotiating psychological contracts
- Stress of socialization
- Transition from organizational outsider to insider
Career Stage Challenges: Advancement
- Exploring career paths
- Finding a mentor
- Handling dual-career partnerships
- Managing work-home conflict
Career Stage Challenges: Maintenance & Withdrawal
Maintenance:
* Sustaining performance
* Becoming a mentor
Withdrawal:
* Planning for change
* Retirement
Career Path
A sequence of job experiences that an employee moves along during his or her career
Career Ladder
A structured series of job positions through which an
individual progresses in an organization
Career lattice
An approach to building competencies by moving laterally through different departments or projects in an organization
What is a Personal Brand?
- “What you are known for”
- “The unique combination of skills and experiences
that make you who you are”
Career Disruptions
External events that change the course of careers:
* COVID-19
* Popularization of app-based ride shares
* Music, TV, and movies switching from physical media to streaming
* 2008 recession
* Decline of printed newspapers and magazines
Work-Home Conflict
Work-family conflict
* Work interferes with family
Family-work conflict
* Family interferes with work
Work-Home Conflict: Fatherhood
- Most American fathers take less than 10 days of paternity leave
Mentor
An individual who provides guidance, coaching, counseling, and friendship to a protégé
Mentorship functions
Career functions:
* Sponsorship
* Facilitating exposure & visibility
* Coaching
* Protection
Psychosocial functions:
* Role modeling
* Acceptance & confirmation
* Counseling
* Friendship
What are the four mentorship stages?
- Initiation
* Mentor and mentee meet and begin to get to know each other - Cultivation
* Discussion of goals and expectations for both parties
* Mentor assists mentee in development and working toward goals and provides feedback - Separation
* Formal end of the mentoring relationship - Redefinition
* Where does the relationship go from here?
The pattern of work-related experiences that spans the course of a person’s life is a ________:
A. Job sequence
B. Career
C. Life path
D. Game plan
B. Career
Amber has worked for the same employer for twenty years and is loyal to the corporation. Which career paradigm is Amber using?
A. Old
B. Modern
C. New
D. Traditional
A. Old
In Janet’s organization, there is a clear sequence of jobs and timeline for promotion. This is an example of a career:
A. Lattice
B. Path
C. Ladder
D. Cohort
C. Ladder
In the ________ career stage, the focus is on sustaining
performance and becoming a mentor.
A. Withdrawal
B. Establishment
C. Advancement
D. Maintenance
D. Maintenance
Organization Development
A systematic approach to
organizational improvement that
applies behavioral science theory
and research in order to increase
individual and organizational well-
being and effectiveness
Group-Focused OD Intervention Techniques?
Survey feedback
* Ask employees what they think
Management by objectives
* Joint goal setting
Quality programs
* Employee-led groups
Team building
* Improve team effectiveness
Process consultation
* Improve business processes
Individual-Focused OD Intervention Techniques?
Skills training
* Formal or informal
Leadership training and development
* Identify and develop future leaders
Executive coaching
* Improve executive performance
Role negotiation
* Clarify mutual expectations
Job redesign
* Improve fit between individuals’ skills and job demands
Wellness programs
* Improve employee mental and physical health
Career planning
* Matching employee aspirations with opportunities in the organization
External vs. Internal forces of change
External
* Globalization
* Workforce Changes
* Technological change
Internal
* Crisis
* Changes in employee expectations
* Changes in work climate
What are the two types of change?
Planned change:
* Results from a deliberate decision to alter the organization
* [example: Netflix moving to streaming]
Unplanned change:
* Imposed on the organization and is often unforeseen
* [Blockbuster being overtaken by
streaming]
What is the scope of change (incremental, strategic, and transformational/radical)?
- Incremental:
Change of a relatively small scope, such as making small improvements - Strategic:
Change of a larger scale, such as organizational restructuring - Transformational (Radical):
Change in which the organization moves to a radically different, and sometimes unknown, future state
Lewin’s change model
unfreezing, moving, and refreezing
Lewin’s change model step 1: unfreezing
Recognize and demonstrate the need for change
* What needs to change?
* How can forces toward intended change be increased?
* How can forces toward status quo be decreased?
* Ensure strong support from management
Lewin’s change model step 2: moving/action
Plan and implement the change
* Involve all organizational members in implementing the change
* Communicate why and how the change is beneficial
* Make adjustments as needed
Lewin’s change model step 3: refreezing
Reinforce and celebrate the change
* Cement the change as the “new normal”
* Prevent regression to previous status quo
* Celebrate successful change
Punctuated Equilibrium change model
Lengthy periods of stability interrupted by brief periods of fundamental change
* Roots in biology and evolution
* Commonly seen in high tech fields
Change is resisted because of…
- Fear of the unknown
- Fear of loss
- Fear of failure
- Fear of disruption of interpersonal relationships
- Personality
- Politics
- Cultural assumptions and values
