Exam 3 Flashcards

Question

What is the general attitude (in North America) toward teenage sexuality?

Answer 1

* somewhat restrictive * parents provide little or no information about sex, discourage sex play, and rarely talk about sex in children’s presence * mny parents avoid meaningful discussions about sex out of fear of embarrassment or concern that the adolescent will not take them seriously

Answer 2

* happens as a result of a developed Formal Operational Stage according to Piaget A formal operational problem-solving strategy in which adolescents begin with a hypothesis, or prediction about variables that might affect an outcome, from which they deduce logical, testable inferences. Then they systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of those inferences are confirmed in the real world In other words, deducing hypotheses from general theory Example) Piaget Pendulum Problem

Answer 3

Another characteristic of Piagets Formal Operational Stage * the ability to evaluate the logic of propositions, or verbal statements, without referring to real-world circumstances * look up an example

Answer 4

* working memory * inhibition * attention * planning * strategies * knowledge * metacognition (awareness of thought) * cognitive self-regulation

Answer 5

Imaginary audience: Adolescents’ belief that they are the focus of everyone else’s attention and concern. Personal fable: Adolescents’ inflated opinion of their own importance—a feeling that they are special and unique.

Answer 6

Identity vs role confusion … is resolved positively when adolescents achieve an identity through a process of exploration and inner soul-searching

Answer 7

Shared experiences and diverse perspectives

Answer 8

Exploration: This refers to the process of actively seeking and considering various options, values, and beliefs. It involves trying out different roles, activities, and ideologies. For adolescents, this might include exploring career paths, friendships, or personal beliefs as they seek to understand who they are Commitment: This refers to the degree to which an individual has made decisions about their identity after exploration. Commitment involves embracing certain beliefs, values, or roles, leading to a clearer and more defined sense of self. It indicates a level of dedication to these chosen aspects of identity

Answer 9

Yes, it can change overtime in response to various factors including - life experiences - social interactions - cultural context - personal growth - crisis and transition (Internal and external factors)

Answer 10

Identity crisis: a temporary period of distress as they experiment with alternatives before settling on values and goals. * Current theorists agree with Erikson that questioning of values, plans, and priorities is necessary for a mature identity, but they no longer describe this process as a “crisis” * For most young people, identity development is not traumatic and disturbing but, rather, a process of exploration followed by commitment.

Answer 11

Self-concept: * May describe contradictory traits; social situations * Gradually combine traits into organized system Self esteem: * Generally rises * temporarily drops at school transitions * self esteem is linked to value of activities, adjustment

Answer 12

identity achievement and moratorium are psychologically healthy routes to a mature self-definition

Answer 13

Identity moratorium & Identity Achievment: information-gathering cognitive style * they seek out relevant information, evaluate it carefully, and critically reflect on their views Foreclosure: dogmatic inflexible cognitive style * internalizing the values and beliefs of parents and others without deliberate evaluation and resisting information that threatens their position Diffusion: diffuse avoidant cognitive style * avoid dealing with personal decisions and problems and, instead, allow current situational pressures to dictate their reactions

Answer 14

- Engage in warm, open communication. - Initiate discussions that promote high-level thinking at home and at school. * Provide opportunities to talk with adults and peers who have worked through similar identity questions. * Refrain from gender stereotyping and exerting pressure to conform to gender roles, instead emphasizing exploration of options based on values, interests, and talents. * Provide opportunities to explore ethnic heritage and learn about other cultures in an atmosphere of respect.

Answer 15

The scenario involves a man named Heinz who must decide whether to steal a drug he cannot afford to buy in order to save his dying wife. The dilemma raises questions about ethics, legality, and morality. It challenges individuals to consider the rightness or wrongness of Heinz's potential actions—whether to obey the law or prioritize saving a life.

Answer 16

THE PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL (stages 1,2) Stage 1 : punishment and obedience orientation - Children find it difficult to consider two points of view in a moral dilemma. As a result, they overlook people’s intentions and focus on fear of authority and avoidance of punishment as reasons for behaving morally. To the Heinz dilemma, an individual who opposes stealing the drug might say, “If you steal, you’ll either be sent to jail or have to live in fear of the police finding you.” Stage 2: The instrumental purpose orientation. Children become aware that people can have different perspectives in a moral dilemma, but at first this understanding is concrete. They view right action as flowing from self-interest and understand reciprocity as equal exchange of favors: “You do this for me and I’ll do that for you.” They might argue that Heinz should steal the drug because “then he’ll still have his wife to keep him company.” THE CONVENTIONAL LEVEL (levels 3 & 4) Stage 3: The “good boy–good girl” orientation, or the morality of interpersonal cooperation. The desire to obey rules because they promote social harmony first appears in the context of close personal ties. Stage 3 individuals want to maintain the affection and approval of friends and relatives by being a “good person”—trustworthy, helpful, and nice. The capacity to view a relationship from the vantage point of an impartial, outside observer, which requires recursive thought (see section 9.5), supports this new approach to morality. Individuals now understand ideal reciprocity: They express the same concern for the welfare of another as they do for themselves—a standard of fairness summed up by the Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” An individual favoring Heinz stealing might explain, “Your family will think you’re a decent, caring husband if you do.” Stage 4: The social-order-maintaining orientation. At this stage, the individual takes into account a larger perspective—that of societal laws. Moral choices no longer depend on close ties to others. Instead, rules must be enforced in the same evenhanded fashion for everyone, and each member of society has a personal duty to uphold them. The Stage 4 individual believes that laws should never be disobeyed because they are vital for ensuring societal order and cooperation between people. Arguing against Heinz stealing, a person might say, “Heinz has a duty like everyone else to obey the law. If he’s allowed to break the law because of a tough situation, others will think they can, too. We’ll have chaos, not a law-abiding society.” POST CONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLE LEVEL (stages 5 & 6) Stage 5: The social contract orientation. At Stage 5, individuals can imagine alternatives to their own social order, and they emphasize fair procedures for interpreting and changing the law. When laws are consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority, each person follows them because of a social contract orientation—free and willing participation in the system because it brings about more good for people than if it did not exist. A person favoring Heinz stealing might explain, “Although there is a law against stealing, it wasn’t meant to violate a person’s right to life. If Heinz is prosecuted, the law needs to be reinterpreted to take into account people’s natural right to keep on living.” Stage 6: The universal ethical principle orientation. At this highest stage, right action is defined by self-chosen ethical principles that are valid for all people, regardless of law and social agreement. Stage 6 individuals typically mention such abstract principles as respect for the worth and dignity of each person, as in this response defending Heinz stealing the drug: “It doesn’t make sense to put respect for property above respect for life. People could live together without private property at all. Respect for human life is absolute and accordingly people have a mutual duty to save one another from dying”

Answer 17

* Carol Gilligan (1982) is the best-known of those who have argued that Kohlberg’s theory does not adequately represent the morality of girls and women. Gilligan believes that feminine morality emphasizes an “ethic of care” that Kohlberg’s system devalues. * females do tend to emphasize care, whereas males either stress justice or focus equally on justice and care. This difference in emphasis, which appears more often in real-life than in hypothetical dilemmas, may reflect women’s greater involvement in daily activities involving care and concern for others.

Answer 18

* Secondary schools with nondiscrimination and antibullying policies and student organizations that support the rights of minorities (such as gay–straight alliances) enhance adolescents’ moral reasoning about discrimination * Teachers who create classroom climates of fairness and respect are similarly influential

Answer 19

* At adolescence, a sense of oneself as a separate, self-governing individual. * Adolescent autonomy has two vital aspects: (1) an emotional component—relying more on oneself and less on parents for support and guidance, and (2) a behavioral component—making decisions independently by carefully weighing one’s own judgment and the suggestions of others to arrive at a personally satisfying, well-reasoned course of action

Answer 20

Throughout adolescence, the quality of the parent–child relationship is the single most consistent predictor of mental health

Answer 21

repeatedly mull over problems and negative emotions, with girls doing so more than boys. Coruminatlon, while contributing to high friendship quality, also triggers anxiety and depression - symptoms repetitive and often excessive discussion of personal problems, especially with a focus on negative emotions or distress. Unlike healthy problem-solving conversations, corumination typically involves dwelling on issues without progressing toward solutions. This behavior can lead to increased emotional distress and strengthen negative moods, and it's often seen in close relationships, such as between friends or romantic partners

Answer 22

Cliques: cliques—groups of about five to seven members who are friends and, therefore, usually resemble one another in family background, attitudes, values, and interests Crowds: several cliques with similar values form a larger, more loosely organized group - based on reputation and stereotype, granting the adolescent an identity within the larger social structure of the school.

Answer 23

Depression—feeling sad, frustrated, and hopeless about life, accompanied by loss of pleasure in most activities and disturbances in sleep, appetite, concentration, and energy—is the most common psychological problem of adolescence. Girls are more prone to depression due to * greater stress reactivity * gender-typed coping styles—passivity, dependency, and tendency to ruminate on anxieties and problems * feminist is associated with depression regardless of sex

Answer 24

Once our body structures reach maximum capacity and efficiency (around the 20s)

Answer 25

* a theory that emphasizes that life longevity is based on genes * rather than inheriting life longevity, we inherit risk and protective factors, which influence chances of dying earlier or later Evidence: “Aging genes” or telomeres * human cells allowed to divide in the laboratory have a lifespan of 50 divisions, plus or minus 10. With each, a special type of DNA called telomeres—located at the ends of chromosomes, serving as a “cap” to protect the ends from destruction—shortens. Eventually, so little remains that the cells no longer duplicate at all. Telomere shortening acts as a brake against somatic mutations (such as those involved in cancer), which become more likely as cells duplicate. But an increase in the number of senescent cells (ones with short telomeres) also contributes to age-related disease, loss of function, and earlier mortality

Answer 26

The strongest evidence for this view comes from research showing that human cells allowed to divide in the laboratory have a lifespan of 50 divisions, plus or minus 10 (Hayflick, 1998). With each, a special type of DNA called telomeres—located at the ends of chromosomes, serving as a “cap” to protect the ends from destruction—shortens. Eventually, so little remains that the cells no longer duplicate at all. Telomere shortening acts as a brake against somatic mutations (such as those involved in cancer), which become more likely as cells duplicate. But an increase in the number of senescent cells (ones with short telomeres) also contributes to age-related disease, loss of function, and earlier mortality

Answer 27

… telomeres respond accordingly and are able to modify * slow rate down * increase length

Answer 28

According to an alternative, “random events” theory, DNA in body cells is gradually damaged through spontaneous or externally caused mutations. As these accumulate, cell repair and replacement become less efficient, and abnormal cancerous cells are often produced.

Answer 29

A theory of biological aging asserting that the formation of bonds, or links, between normally separate protein fibers causes the body’s connective tissue to become less elastic over time, leading to many negative physical outcomes, including loss of flexibility in the skin and other organs, clouding of the lens of the eye, clogging of arteries, and kidney damage * gradual failure of endocrine system * declines in immune system functioning * Like other aspects of aging, cross-linking can be reduced by external factors, including regular exercise and a healthy diet.

Answer 30

* During the twenties and thirties, they are so gradual that most are hardly noticeable

Answer 31

* a serious disease of the cardiovascular system, in which heavy deposits of plaque containing cholesterol and fats collect on the walls of the main arteries * caused by high fat diet * If present it usually begins early in life, progresses during middle adulthood, and culminates in serious illness * is multiply determined, making it hard to separate the contributions of biological aging from individual genetic and environmental influences

Answer 32

Low SES is linked to poor health in childhood which subsequently affects adulthood * Health-related circumstances and habits—stressful life events, crowding, pollution, diet, exercise, overweight and obesity, substance abuse, jobs with numerous health risks, and reduced social support—underlie SES health disparities

Answer 33

Some weight gain in adulthood reflects a decrease in basal metabolic rate (BMR), but many young adults add excess weight

Answer 34

* limits biological aging * delays rapid shortening of telomeres * physical activity is linked to reduced incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and several types of cancer, with the strongest findings for breast and colon cancer * reduces anxiety and depression and improves mood, alertness, and energy. * exercise enhances neural activity in the cerebral cortex, and it improves overall cognitive functioning * promotes on-the-job productivity, self-esteem, ability to cope with stress, and life satisfaction.

Answer 35

CAC: In Labouvie-Vief’s theory, awareness of conflicting positive and negative feelings and coordination of them into a complex, organized structure that recognizes the uniqueness of individual experiences Example: “With the recent birth of our first child, I find myself more fulfilled than ever, yet struggling in some ways. My elation is tempered by my gnawing concern over meeting all my responsibilities in a satisfying way while remaining an individualized person with needs and desires.” Pragmatic Thought: In Labouvie-Vief ‘s theory, a structural advance in thinking in adulthood, in which logic becomes a tool for solving real-world problems and contradictions are accepted as part of existence

Answer 36

* adverse social conditions, traumatic experiences, negative life events, or daily hassles, * is caused or worsened by low SES

Answer 37

Reflection on how one arrives at facts, beliefs, and ideas Thinking changes… 1. Dualistic thinking- dividing information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they 2. Relativistic thinking - view all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought and, therefore, give up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths, each relative to its context 3. Commitment within relativistic thinking - formulation of a perspective that synthesizes contradictions between opposing views, rather than choosing between them 4. Relativism- generally display a more sophisticated approach to learning, in which they actively seek differing perspectives to deepen their knowledge and understanding and to clarify the basis for their own perspective

Answer 38

* improved problem reasoning skills * identifying the strengths and weaknesses of opposing sides of complex issues * reflecting on the quality of their thinking * attitudes and values broaden * greater tolerance for ethnic diversity * gains in civic engagement