exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Oocytes (2n) begin meiosis I during ____________ and are arrested in __________ and remain dormant until after puberty.
Meoisis I then resumes when an _______________
A
Oocytes (2n) begin meiosis I during fetal development and are arrested in Prophase I and remain dormant until after puberty.
Meoisis I then resumes when an individual follicle is recruited (in adult life)
2
Q
What stage of meiosis if the oocyte arrested in from fetal development until puberty
A
Prophase I
3
Q
When does Meiosis I resume again in the oocyte
A
when the individual follicle is recruited (in adult life)
4
Q
What stage is the oocyte of the dog in when they ovulate
A
Prophase I of meiosis
5
Q
What is polar body
A
a small haploid cell that is formed at the same time as an egg cell during oogenesis, but generally does not have the ability to be fertilized
6
Q
Meiosis II of the oocyte begins when the follicle is recruited for further development but it is arrested in
A
Metaphase II
7
Q
What stage of meiosis is the oocyte in at ovulation
A
Metaphase II
*meiosis resume so only if the oocyte if fertilized by a sperm
In the dog, the oocyte is only in prophase I at ovulation
8
Q
In most species, the the oocyte is in ______ at ovulation but in the dog they are in _______ at ovulation
A
Metaphase II
Prophase I
9
Q
What is released at ovulation
A
cumulus-oocyte complex
10
Q
What picks up the cumulus oocyte complex after ovulation
A
the infundibulum of the oviduct
it is then transported distally to the ampulla region
11
Q
What are sperm reservoirs
A
sperm attach to the epithelium of the female reproductive tract (cervix, uterotubular junction or distal isthmus where they are eventually released and travel proximally by the oviduct
12
Q
Where are sperm reservoirs
A
sperm attach to the epithelium of the female reproductive tract (cervix, uterotubular junction or distal isthmus where they are eventually released and travel proximally by the oviduct
13
Q
Sperm Capacitation
A
changes in the glycoproteins on the surface of the sperm plasma membrane
alteration of the lipid structure of the sperm plasma membrane leading to hyper-activated motility
14
Q
What is the result of sperm capacitation
A
alteration of the lipid structure of the sperm plasma membrane leading to hyper-activated motility to now be able to penetrate the cumulus oocyte complex
15
Q
sperm penetrate through the __________ surrounding the oocyte
A
cumulus cells
16
Q
Where does the sperm bind to on the oocyte
A
Zona pellucida (ZP3 molecule)
17
Q
What triggers the acrosome reaction
A
influx of calcium
the outer acrosomal membrane then fuses with the sperm plasma membrane leading to acrosomal enzymes being release to digest a pathway through the zona pellucida
18
Q
What is the acrosome reaction
A
influx of calcium triggers the outer acrosomal membrane then fuses with the sperm plasma membrane leading to acrosomal enzymes being release to digest a pathway through the zona pellucida
19
Q
Once the sperm is hyperactivated and acrosomally reacted it is able to pass through the ___________ into the _________
A
zona pellucida into the perivitelline space (between the zona pellucida and the oocyte plasma membrane)
20
Q
Where is the perivitelline space
A
(between the zona pellucida and the oocyte plasma membrane)
21
Q
What happens once the sperm is in the perivitelline space
A
it is able to bind to and subsequently fuse with the oocyte plasma membrane (binding site on sperm is only exposed after acrosome reaction)
the sperm is then internalized into the cytoplasm of the oocyte
22
Q
What allows exposure of the sperm binding site to the oocyte plasma membrane
A
after the acrosome reaction
23
Q
What occurs once the sperm enters the cytoplasm of the oocyte *
A
Cortical reaction: sperm releases phospholipase zeta into the oocyte cytoplasm and triggers a release of calcium from internal stores
this causes release of cortical granules into the perivitelline space
alters the zona pellucida and prevents penetration by additional sperm (zona hardening)
24
Q
Cortical reaction *
A
sperm releases phospholipase zeta into the oocyte cytoplasm and triggers a release of calcium from internal stores
this causes release of cortical granules into the perivitelline space
alters the zona pellucida and prevents penetration by additional sperm (zona hardening)
25
What happens so the oocyte does not get fertilized by multiple sperm *
cortical reaction
sperm releases phospholipase zeta which releases calcium and this releases cortical granules into perivitelline space to harden the zona pellucida
26
What is zona hardening * know this
Cortical reaction: sperm releases phospholipase zeta into the oocyte cytoplasm and triggers a release of calcium from internal stores
this causes release of cortical granules into the perivitelline space
alters the zona pellucida and prevents penetration by additional sperm (zona hardening)
27
blocks to polysperm
-Limitation of number of sperm entery oviduct
-limitation of number of sperm in sperm reservoir
-limitation of sperm arriving at site of fertilization (ampulla)
-limitation of sperm penetrating cumulus
-plasma membrane block - prevents binding/fusion of additional spermatozoa
-zona pellucida block (zona hardening)
28
Where does fertilization take place
ampulla- isthmus junction
29
What allows meiosis II to resume with fertilization
Ca++
30
What occurs during zygote formation
Meiosis II resumes (stimulated by Ca2+)
Second polar body is extruded
Male and female pronuclei form and fuse
Chromosomes are duplicated (mitosis) and the cell cleaves into two blastomeres
31
zygote
where there is two sets of DNA- male and female
32
What happens once male and female pronuclei form and fuse
chromosomes are duplicated (mitosis) and the cell cleaves into two blastomeres
33
How long does it take blastomere cells to divide
every 12-24 hours
*each division results in smaller individual cells
34
developing embryo that is 16 to 32 cells (maybe 64? too)?
Morula
35
what is the second membrane, that only horses have that surround the embryo
capsule (also zona pellucida)
36
forms when blastomeres secrete fluid within the center of the embryo
blastocoele
37
What is the outer layer of the embryo called once the blastocele forms
trophoblast- forms the placenta
38
What part of the developing embryo forms the placenta
trophoblast
39
the inner cell mass develops into the
fetus
40
What occurs at the ampulla- isthmus junction
fertilization
41
What occurs once fertilization occurs at the ampulla- isthmus junction
the developing embryo is transported distally through the isthmus and into the uterus by oviductal smooth muscle contractions and ciliary movement
42
When does the embryo enter the uterus in the cow
4 to 7 days
43
When does the embryo enter the uterus in the pig
3.5 days
44
When does the embryo enter the uterus in the mare
5.5 to 6.5 days
45
When does the embryo enter the uterus
3.5 days (pigs)
4 to 7 days (cow)
5.5 to 6.5 days (mare)
*at morula or early blastocyst stage
46
At what stage is the embryo when it enters the uterus
at morula or early blastocyst stage
47
T/F: only viable equine embryos are transported distally through the isthmus and pass through the UTJ into the uterus
True
this is different from the cow because when you flush the cow's uterus, you will get UFOs and fertilized oocytes
48
What allows embryo passage through the oviduct in the horse
Must product prostaglandin E2 which relaxes the inner circular smooth muscle of the oviduct and allows embryo passage
49
What relaxes the inner circular smooth muscle of the oviduct and allows viable embryo passage in the isthmus of the horse
PGE2
50
In the horse, only __________ are transported distally through the _________ and pass through the _______ into the uterus
viable embryos are transported distally through the isthmus and pass through the UTJ into the uterus
*done via PGE2
51
zona hatching
embryonic development creates pressure
a small crack eventually occurs in the zona pellucida
the blastocyst stage embryo squeezes out through the crack "hatching" in ruminant embryos
52
What do equines do instead of zona hatching
they do zona thinning
equine embryos expand and the zona thins and is subsequently shed
53
Zonna thinning
equine embryos expand and the zona thins and is subsequently shed
only in horse
54
glycoprotein capsule between the trophoblast cells and zona pellucida in vivo
Equine Embryonic Capsule
*keeps embryo in the spherical shape
55
What is the function of the Equine Embryonic Capsule
keeps embryo in the spherical shape after zona thinning and shedding
56
what is the hormone required by all females to maintain pregnancy, especially early on **know this
Progesterone
-inital source of progesterone is corpus luteum of the ovary
-in some species, progesterone and other progestins are eventually produced by the placenta
57
T/F: goats are entirely reliant on their corpus luteum throughout pregnancy
true
58
When does maternal recognition of pregnancy occur in the mare
about 14 days
59
T/F: it is helpful to supplement progesterone to maintain pregnancy
there is little clinical evidence to support the routine use of supplemental exogenous progesterone in order to maintain pregnancy
however the use of exogenous progesterine os common in mares (Regumate)
60
large animal embryos must signal the uterus to prevent the secretion of prostaglandins and subsequent luteolysis
a decrease in progesterone production would result in pregnancy failure
Maternal recognition of pregnancy
61
How is maternal recognition of pregnancy achieved in bovines and ovines? *
embryos secrete interferon tau which inhibits the production of oxytocin receptors in the endometrium so that oxytocin cannot stimulate prostaglandin F2a synthesis
embryo elongate in their ipsilateral uterine horn to the CL
this elongation allows IFN-t produces by trophoblast cells to contact the entire ipsilateral endometrium to signal MRP
this is important relative to counter current transport system
62
Interferon tau
secreted by bovine and ovine embryos and inhibit the production of oxytocin receptors in the endometrium so that oyxtocin cannot stimulate prostaglandin F2a synthesis
63
How is maternal recognition of pregnancy achieved in pigs *
pigs embryos produce estradiol which re-routes PGF secretion into the uterine lumen
Pig embroys will migrate throughout the uterus on day 8-9 and spread apart.
Migration stops at day 12
A total of 4 embryos are required for MRP
At least 1 embryo has to be in each horn
64
How is maternal recognition of pregnancy achieved in equine
the signal is not known
65
What produces IFN-t
trophoblast cells of bovine and ovine embryo
66
What does the elongation of the bovine and ovine embryos do? **
embryo elongate in their ipsilateral uterine horn to the CL
this elongation allows IFN-t produces by trophoblast cells to contact the entire ipsilateral endometrium to signal MRP
67
What is required for MRP in pigs *
1) Embryo migration from days 8-12
2) Total of 4 embryos or more
3) At least 1 embryo has to be in each horn
4) Estrogens from embryos
68
How many embryos are needed in pigs for MRP
4 embryos
at least one in each horn
69
What is needed for MRP in equine
Equine embryos spherical and migrate throughout entire uterine lumen (both horns and body) multiple times each day
migration facilitates embryo signaling in the entire endometrium for MRP
important relative to the mechanism by which prostaglandins travel to the ovary in the mare (systemic circulation)
70
When do equine embryos stop migrating
day 16 (MRP happens 12-14 days)
71
twins that arise from the fertilization of two oocytes
Dizygotic twins (non-identical)
72
twins that arise from fertilization of one oocyte from one ovulation and the developing embryo splits
Monozygotic twins
73
In what species are twins or triplets common
sheep and goats
survival offspring are of economic benefit
73
T/F: twins survive in horses and this is economically beneficial
False- twins often do not survive in horse to term or early neonatal loss occurs
74
What does embryo splitting do
it creates identical twins
75
What is the incidence rate of embryonic loss
2-20%
76
Conception (fertilization) rates are
often very high
determined by the presence of cleavage stage or early developing embryos in the oviduct 2-3 days after ovulation
77
uterine pregnancy rates are
usually much lower that conception rates
embryos visible on ultrasound exam 14-18 days after ovulation
suggests that early embroyonic loss rates are significant
78
What happens when there is embryonic loss prior to maternal recognition of pregnancy
CL regresses at normal time
no delay in return to estrus
79
What happens when there is embryonic loss after maternal recognition of pregnancy
CL persist
Delay in return to estrus
Need to administer prostaglandins to lyse CL and allow for a return to estrus
80
What are causes of early pregnancy loss
1) maternal age (older oocytes, DNA damage over time)
2) Endometrial/uterine disease
3) Progesterone abnormalities
4) Chromosomal abnormalities
5) Inadequate nutrition
6) Maternal stress
7) Early postpartum pregnancies (some species)
8) Abnormalities of embryonic development
81
describe only the fetal component of the placenta
fetal membranes
82
placenta consists of
both maternal and embryonic/fetal components
83
How is the fetus nutritionally supported in early pregnancy
secretions from endometrial glands provide micronutrients which are taken up by the trophoblast cells and eventually by the vascularized yolk sac
-Histotrophic support
84
How is the fetus nutritionally supported in later pregnancy
development of close association between vascular tissue of maternal endometrium and fetal membranes allows for hemotrophic support
85
When does implantation/ attachment (interdigitation of placental tissue with endometrium occur)
Pigs: 14-18 days
Sheep: 15-18days
Cows: 18-22 days
Horses: 35-38 days
86
When does implantation/ attachment (interdigitation of placental tissue with endometrium occur) in pigs
Pigs: 14-18 days
87
When does implantation/ attachment (interdigitation of placental tissue with endometrium occur) in sheep
Sheep: 15-18days
88
When does implantation/ attachment (interdigitation of placental tissue with endometrium occur) in cows
Cows: 18-22 days
89
When does implantation/ attachment (interdigitation of placental tissue with endometrium occur) in horses
Horses: 35-38 days
90
What is the membrane that surrounds the developing fetus
amnion
91
what is the outpouching of the fetal hindgut
chorioallantoic membrane
92
What fluid is ruptured
allantoic fluid as the chorioallantois ruptures
93
placenta type where microcotyledons evenly spread out across entire placenta
Diffuse
horse and pig*
94
What kind of placenta type do horses have
Diffuse
placenta type where microcotyledons evenly spread out across entire placenta
95
What kind of placenta type to pigs have
Diffuse
placenta type where microcotyledons evenly spread out across entire placenta
96
placenta type where discrete attachment sites between cotyledons (placenta) and caruncles (uterus) forming placentomes
Cotyledonary
ruminants
97
What kind of placenta type do ruminants have
Cotyledonary
placenta type where discrete attachment sites between cotyledons (placenta) and caruncles (uterus) forming placentomes
98
What is the maternal component of the placentome
caruncles (uterus)
99
What is the fetal component of the placenetome
cotyledons (placenta)
100
placenta type where contact between placenta and endometrium is in a band around the fetus
Zonary
-carnivores
101
What type of placenta type do dogs have
Zonary
placenta type where contact between placenta and endometrium is in a band around the fetus
102
What type of placenta type do cats have
Zonary
placenta type where contact between placenta and endometrium is in a band around the fetus
103
What kind of placenta type do primates and rats have
discoid
104
How many placenta layers are there in ruminants
Epitheliochorial
-chorionic villi grows into the aperatures of uterine glands
6 degrees of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
4) Endometrial epithelial cells
5) maternal connective tissue
6) maternal endothelial cells
*present in all large animals
105
What does it mean when animals have an epitheliochorial placenta type
Epitheliochorial
-chorionic villi grows into the aperatures of uterine glands
6 degrees of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
4) Endometrial epithelial cells
5) maternal connective tissue
6) maternal endothelial cells
*present in all large animals
106
What does it mean when animals have an endotheliochorial placenta type
Endotheliochorial
-Chorionic villi are in contact with the endothelium of maternal blood vessels
-4 layers of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
4) Maternal endothelial cells
*loss of endometrial epithelial cells and maternal connective tissue
*Dog and cat
107
How many placenta layers do dogs and cats have
Endotheliochorial
-Chorionic villi are in contact with the endothelium of maternal blood vessels
-4 layers of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
4) Maternal endothelial cells
*loss of endometrial epithelial cells and maternal connective tissue
*Dog and cat
108
What does it mean when an animal has hemochorial placenta
Hemochorial
-fetal chorion comes into direct contact with maternal blood
*3 layers of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
109
What kind of placenta do primates and rodents have
Hemochorial
-fetal chorion comes into direct contact with maternal blood
*3 layers of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
110
All foals, calves, lambs, kids are born with a functional immune system but not any antibodies, why is this?
Because they have an epitheliochorial placenta (all 6 layers are intact and large IgG cannot pass)
*Need to have colostrum*
111
Why is it even more important that foals, calves, lambs, and kids get colostrum
Because they have an epitheliochorial placenta (all 6 layers are intact and large IgG cannot pass)
*Need to have colostrum*
112
What are the layers in the epitheliochorial placenta
6 degrees of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
4) Endometrial epithelial cells
5) maternal connective tissue
6) maternal endothelial cells
113
What are the layers of the endotheliochorial placenta
-4 layers of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
4) Maternal endothelial cells
114
What are the layers of the hemochorial placenta
-fetal chorion comes into direct contact with maternal blood
*3 layers of separation
1) Fetal endothelial cells
2) Fetal connective tissue
3) Chorionic epithelial cells
115
Rank the different placenta types by their level of transplacental transfer of immunoglobulins during pregnancy
Hemochorial > Endotheliochorial > Hemochorial
116
T/F: colostrum is not very important in cats and dogs because they still get some transplacental transfer of immunoglobulins
False- they have 4 layers of separation between vascualar supply of dam and vascular supply of fetus allows some transfer of immunoglobulins but colostrum is still important
117
What are the species that depend on the CL for progesterone throughout gestation
Dogos
Cats
Goats
Pigs
Llamas/ Alpacas
118
T/F: dogs are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
True
119
T/F: cats are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
True
120
T/F: goats are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
True
121
T/F: pigs are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
True
122
T/F: llamas/ alpacas are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
True
123
T/F: horses are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
False- they rely on their CL for 70 days out of 11 month gestation and then it switches to placenta
124
T/F: sheep are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
False- they rely on their CL for 50 days out of a 5 month gestation
125
T/F: cows are CL dependent species for their progesterone source throughout gestation
False- they rely on their CL for 6-8 months out of the 9month gestation
126
In horses, when does progesterone source switch from CL to placenta *
they rely on their CL for 70 days out of 11 month gestation and then it switches to placenta
(full switch over at 120 days)
127
In sheep, when does progesterone source switch from CL to placenta
they rely on their CL for 50 days out of a 5 month gestation
128
In cows, when does progesterone source switch from CL to placenta
they rely on their CL for 6-8 months out of the 9month gestation
129
What do horses form at 35 days of gestation ***
endometrial cups- cells from trophoblast invade into tissue to produce eCG
130
What signals the mare's ovary to make the secondary CL *
endometrial cups (d35)- cells from trophoblast invade into tissue to produce eCG
131
specialized trophoblast cells - origin is chorionic girdle (visible at day 25 of gestation), invade into endometrium (days 35) to form distinct cup shaped aggregation of fetal tissue within the maternal endometrium. What is this called
Equine Endometrial Cups (know this)
132
Equine Endometrial Cups **
specialized trophoblast cells - origin is chorionic girdle (visible at day 25 of gestation), invade into endometrium (days 35) to form distinct cup shaped aggregation of fetal tissue within the maternal endometrium. What is this called
133
What do Equine Endometrial Cups produce
ecG is produced by bi-nucleated cells
may provide protection from maternal immune system
ecG has noth FSH and LH activity
but tells horse ovary to form secodnary or accessory corpora lutea
134
What is the result of ecG produced by the endometrial cups of the pregnant mare *
ecG has both FSH and LH activity
1) Endogenous FSH stimulates follicle development in pregnant mare
2) Causes ovulation and/or luteinization of the large follicles
3) Secondary or accessory corpora lutea form- to produce additional progesterone and helps support early pregnancy
135
When do endometrial cups in mare typically disappear
after 120-150 days of gestation via immune rejection (formed at day 35 of gestation)
136
What is the result if there is pregnancy loss after day 35 in the mare
the mare forms endometrial cups at day 35
cups will remain present; eCG production is continued and the mare is lost for the season and will not cycle back
137
What happens with persistent endometrial cups
continued presence beyond 150 days after pregnancy loss or after delivery of normal healthy full term foal
eCG prodiction continued
results in abnormal ovarian function
138
What happens to the equine fetal gonads during gestation
gonads of male and female fetus undergo dramatic enlargement and regression between 3-8 months of gestation
*enlarged gonads produce androgen precursors and those androgens can be converted to estrogens by placental aromatase
Androgen and estrogen levels increase in maternal blood- may cause behavioral changes in mare (aggressive or stallion live behavior)
139
What is the result of the enlarged equine fetal gonads between months 3-8 of gestation
*enlarged gonads produce androgen precursors and those androgens can be converted to estrogens by placental aromatase
Androgen and estrogen levels increase in maternal blood- may cause behavioral changes in mare (aggressive or stallion live behavior)
140
Trouble with equine twins
abortion rate is high
most mares cannot carry twins to term (abortion after 7months)
cause of abortion is placental insufficency
complications:
retained placenta
dystocia
ruptured prepubic tendon
rebreeding problems
141
What are the complications of equine twins
retained placenta
dystocia
ruptured prepubic tendon
rebreeding problems
Most have abortions after 7 months
142
T/F: it is okay to advise clients that they can let the mare carry both embryos to term
False- terrible idea
143
What should you do if you have a mare pregnant with twins*
abort embryos and rebreed
-not popular with the client
so you can eliminate one embryo- pregnancy reduction (most common procedure)
144
When is the best time for pregnancy reduction in a mare with twins
Day 14-16
Embryos migrate throughout uterus from day 6 to day 16, at which time they fix in position
Reduction is when one embryonic vesicle is disrupted and the other is allowed to continue to develop
145
Do you chose to reduce the smaller or larger embryo when a mare has twin embryos
smaller
146
How is twin reduction done in mares
1) around day 14-16 when the embryos are migrating throughout the uterus
2) Press down with ultrasound and steam roll to disrupt the membrane around the embryo
147
What is the optimal technique for pregnancy diagnosis
*Stage dependent
False negatives and positives are possible with any test
148
T/F: false negatives and positives are possible with any pregnancy diagnosis test
True
149
What are the different pregnancy tests for the mare
1) Early Pregnancy Factor (HSP-10) - day 1-120 of gestation
2) U/S: day 11- term
3) Palpation: day 18- term
4) Progesterone: day 18-90
5) eCG: day 35-120
6) Relaxin: day 80-term
7) Estrogens (conjugated or total- day 90 to term)
150
How might you behavior play a role in pregnancy diagnosis
potentially effective only in polyestrous species (large animals with repeated estrous cycles)
Failure to return to estrus may be suggestive of pregnancy, however other reasons exist for failure to return
expression of estrus strongly suggests that not being pregnant, however this may be erroneous
151
expression of estrus strongly suggests ____________, however this may be erroneous
expression of estrus strongly suggests that not being pregnant, however this may be erroneous
152
What might be potential causes of errors for using behavior in polyestrous species for pregnancy diagnosis
inappropiate heat detection
season
lactation
nutrition
pseudopregnancy (persistent CL)
early embryonic loss
failure of follicular developement
ovarian patholgoy (ie ovarian cysts)
153
visual assessment of abdomen for pregnancy diagnosis
potentiall effective in second to third trimester of many pregnany animals
changes in abdominal shape and body weight may be indicative of pregnancy
may be difficult in overweight or obese animals
154
When might external palpation of the abdomen for pregnancy diagnosis be effective in dogs
days 24-35 of gestation
feel a string of pearls
155
Palpation of abdomen for pregnancy diagnosis
Dog: days 24-35 of gestation
feel a string of pearls
Large animals: ballottement of the abdomen (large animals)- bump fetus on transabdominal pressure, detection of fetal movement
156
Common technique to detect pregnancy in large animals (cows and horses)
inexpensive, rapid accurate
stage dependent and require practiced clinical skil
often performed in conjunction with U/S in horses
transrectal palpation
157
What are the 4 positive signs of pregnancy in cattle when doing transrectal palpation *
1) Palpation of the amnionic vesicle
2) Fetal membrane slip
3) Palpation of the placetome (cotyledon/caruncle)
4) Palpation of the fetus
*Fremitus in middle uterine artery- fluid turbulence associated with a buzz feeling is "suggestuve of pregnancy but not a + sign)
158
What sign on transrectal palpation in cattle is suggestive of pregnancy but not a + sign
*Fremitus in middle uterine artery- fluid turbulence associated with a buzz feeling is "suggestuve of pregnancy but not a + sign)
only detectable in pregnant animal but not direct diagnosis
159
Palpation of the amnionic vesicle *
*one of the 4 signs of transrectal palpation in the cow
-retract reproductive tract into the pelvic canal
-fell uterus for asymmetry
*can estimate the day of gestation
know these two things
160
What is the membrane slip
one of the 4 signs of pregnancy in cattle when doing transrectal palpation
*Chorioallantoic membrane between placentomes
161
What are you feeling on a membrane slip
Chorioallantoic membrane between placentomes
162
Palpation of placentome
one of the 4 cardinal signs of pregnancy diagnosis via transrectal palpation
feeling for the caruncle/ cotyledons
*Size of placetome can be used to estimate gestational age
example 75 days- pea size and increase to half dollar size (150 days)
163
When can you first palpate the fetus in cows
one of the 4 signs of positive pregnancy in cattle via transrectal palpation
55-60 days
estimate size (2 months- mouse and increase to beagle dog at 6 months)
164
What are the 4 positive signs of pregnancy in cattle when doing transrectal palpation *
1) Palpation of the amnionic vesicle
2) Fetal membrane slip
3) Palpation of the placetome (cotyledon/caruncle)
4) Palpation of the fetus
165
What are the positive signs of pregnancy in horses when doing transrectal palpation *
1) Fetal bulge (size dependent on stage of gestation)
2) Fetal movement
*NO membrane slip (diffuse placenta)
*No placetomes (diffuse placenta)
Additional signs: increase tone in uterus and cervix
166
Why might you need to do U/S with transrectal palpation for pregnancy diagnosis in the horse
*NO membrane slip (diffuse placenta)
*No placetomes (diffuse placenta)
transrectally, can only use fetal bulge and movement to detect (positive signs) and increased tone in uterus and cervix (additional sign)
167
When in pregnancy can amnionic vesicles first be detected in dogs on U/S
Day 19-20
168
When can the fetal heart beats be noted on U/S in the dog
Day 23-28+
169
Ultrasonography for pregnancy diagnosis in dogs
Very good for detection of pregnancy, may not be accurate for determining the number of embryos or fetuses
Transabdominal technique
Day 19-20: Amniotic vesicles
Day 23-28: heart beat can be noted (dogs)
170
How is ultrasounography for large animals done
transrectal technique
very good for early detection of pregnancy
171
Ultrasonography for pregnancy diagnosis in mares
Transrectal Approach
very good for early detection of pregnancy
Day 11- embryos first detected
Day 25- heart beat can be noted
Tell you pregnancy loss, detection and management of twins, fetal sex determination
172
When can sex of cattle and horse be determined
59-70 days after ovulation
*Look at the position of the genital tubercle identified
173
Why is radiography not good for early detection of pregnancy in small animals
it depends on mineralization of fetal skeleton (day 43-44 in dogs)
174
When does mineralization of fetal skeleton occur in dogs and you can therefore determine of radiography
day 43-44
175
How can you tell how many fetuses a dog has on radiography
count the number of skulls and spinal columns
this is good for evaluation of a bitch with dystocia
176
T/F: progesterone can differentiate between pregnant and non-pregnant dogs
False
177
What endocrine test should you use for pregnancy diagnosis in small animals
Relaxin at the second half of pregnancy
Withness Preg Test
178
Endocrine tests for the diagnosis of pregnancy in cattle
1) Progesterone (not direct indicator of pregnancy- complete absence of progesterone <1.0ng/ml) is compatible with pregnancy
2) Estrone sulfate - produced by placentra
3) Interferon-tau - secreted by trophoblast cells, detectable as early as 15 days after breeding
4) Early Pregnancy Factor (EPF)- detectable as early as 24 hours after ovulation
*Not usually done in cattle
179
T/F: progesterone is a direct indicator of pregnancy in cattle
False
Progesterone (not direct indicator of pregnancy- complete absence of progesterone <1.0ng/ml) is incompatible with pregnancy
180
What are endocrine tests for pregnancy diagnosis in mares
1) Progesterone- not direct indicator of pregnancy, false errors with sample timine, pseudopregnancy, complete abscence of progesterone is incompative with pregnancy
2) Early Pregnancy Factor
3) eCG- endometrial cups of placenta
4) Estrogens (estrone sulfate)
5) Relaxin
181
When do estrogens increase during mare pregnancy
Day 90, peak at day 200 and decrease after.
a good marker of good pregnancy health
182
When does relaxin begin to increase in pregnancy of mare
Day 75 increase with peak at day 150 and remains high until term
183
Fibrinogen and ceruloplasmin
acute phase proteins that may be elevated in dogs gestation from week 3/4 onward
can be used for pregnancy diagnosis
184
early pregnancy factor
elevated within a day of conception
and can be used in different species
difficult to perform
185
phocomelia
developed due to human mothers being prescribed thalidomide for nausea in the 1950s and 1960s
186
Developmental pathology is an interaction between
Genetics and Environment
187
What are broad classes of Environmental Teratogens
1) Physical- intrauterine trauma (e.g palpation), hyperthermia
2) Nutritional- Vit A: both hyper and hypo are teratogenic, copper deficiency, iodine deficiency
3) Toxic; plants, drugs, alcohol
4) Infectious
5) Metabolic
188
What is the leading cause of noninfectious blindness in the world
Hypovitaminosis A
(also hypervitaminosis A can cause teratogens)
189
Griseofulvin treatment of pregnant animal results in
birth defects
190
What does iodine deficiency lead to in neonates
Goiter
191
T/F: a single agent can induce dramatically different disease at different stages of gestation
True
preimplantation- early embroynic death, looks like fertility
organogenesis- major tetraogenesis
histogenesis- less severe defects
192
What causes cerebellar hypoplasia
Cats- Panleukopenia
Cows- BVDV or Blue tongue
193
What causes cerebellar hypoplasia
Feline panleukopenia
BVDV or blue tongue
194
Veratrum californicum
Called Skunk Cabbage
Cyclopamine (alkaloid) will produce cyclopean lambs around day 14 of gestation
causes short legged animals day 28-31
causes tracheal stenosis Days 30-36
195
When does feeding Veratrum californicum cause short legs and musculoskeletal abnormalities
Days 28-31
196
When does feeding Veratrum californicum cause cyclopean lambs?
Day 14 of gestation
197
When does feeding Veratrum californicum cause tracheal stenosis
Days 30-36
198
T/F: totally different agents can induce the same pathologic changes in the fetus
true- depends on the time of gestation
199
What causes Arthrogryposis
1) Heritable in several breeds of cattle and humans
2) Viral (Akabane, Cache Valley)
3) Poisonous plants (Lupine and acorn)
200
How do you tell if the defect is genetic or environmental
can be difficult
-Hints of mendelian or familial disease?
-Gross and histopathology of fetus, placenta
-Isolate etiologic agent
-Specific antibodies in fetal/ neonatal serum
-Examine environment (plants)
Most important is to know the possibilities
201
What are the factors involved in pathogenesis of tetragens
1) Genotype of animal (mother and conceptus)
2) Dose and frequency (thresholds) of tetragen
3) Nature of agent or insult (MLV vaccines)
4) Stage of development- germ cells, early embryo (usually death of conceptus) , organogenesis (major defects), histogenesis (less severe defects), perinatal period
202
What are the fates of abnormal conceptus
-Early embryonic death
-abortion
-mummification
-maceration
-premature birth
-still birth
-prolonged gesation
-congnenital disease
-defects manifest later in life (fetal origins of adult disease)
203
Why might there be prolonged gestation
adrenal hypoplasia
hypopthalamic pituitary hyoplasia
204
What is maceration
macerated fetal tissues - broken down a fetus with bones
205
where there is no evidence that a particular structure formed
Agenesis
206
body part is underdeveloped
hypoplasia
207
structure is developed but not developed correctly,
dysplasia
208
organ that develops but does not develop to correctly to meet its function
dystrophy
209
organ develops to be large
hyperplasia
210
where a canal is not formed in a hollow organ
atresia or stenosis
211
a situation in which an organ or body part is in the wrong position, either from birth or because of an injury
ectopia
212
where there is more than one, or the normal amount of an organ or structure
supernumeration
213
Ectopia cordis
where the heart develops in the wrong place
214
What are causes of viral teratology
-Venezuelan Encephalitis
-Rift Valley Fever
-Cache Valleu
-Bluetongue virus
-Akabane, Schmallenberg
-BVDV
-Border Disease Virus
215
How is bluetongue transmitted
via culicoides gnats
216
What teratogenic effects does bluetongue virus cause
Hydranencephaly
217
Bluetongue in sheep is _________ while in cattle it is_______
sheep- see severe disease, large outbreaks
Cattle- typically subclinical
218
Why should you not vaccinate pregnant animals for Bluetongue
attenuated vaccines can cross the placenta and cause hydranencephaly (destructive process)
219
How is Akabane transmitted
it is a bunyavirus that is transmitted by mosquitoes and Culicoides
220
Akabane virus
bunyavirus that is transmitted by mosquitoes and Culicoides
distribution: Australia, Japan, Africa, Israel
infected adult cattle, sheep, and goats (subclinical)
lesion: abortion, stillbirth, premature birth, arthrogryposis and hydranencephaly
221
How does Akabane virus affect pregnancy?
Abortion, stillbirth, and premature birth
*Arthrogyposis and hydraencephaly of the fetus
222
What lesions to the fetus will you see with Akabane virus
Abortion, stillbirth, and premature birth
*Arthrogyposis and hydraencephaly of the fetus
223
Schmallenberg virus is a _____________
bunyavirus in Europe, discovered 2011
vector borne
-hydraencephaly
-arthrogyrposis
(similar to Akabane)
224
Cache Valley virus is a ___________
mosquito borne bunya virus
mild in adults but in pregnancy
<32 days- conceptus death
32-37 days- Musculoskeletal/CNS
38-48 days- mostly CNS
>48 days- few affects if any
225
Hydraencephalic calves can be caused by Bluetongue, Akabane, or Schmallenberg. How do you differentiate??
Akabane and Schmallenberg is foreign so alarming
Differentiate via testing for antibodies.
226
When do calfs gain immunocompensy in gestation
around day 150. will produce antibodies against the virus if exposed in utero
227
Noncytopathogenic viruses
infection 60-120 days
widespread fetal infection but not aborted
persistently infected -> families
Status at birth:
Virus positive
antibody negative
228
Cytopathogenic viruses
infection throughout gestation
critical periods: death to no significant effect
Status at birth: Virus negative and antibody positive
229
When does non-cytopathogenic BVDV infection occur
60-120, widespread fetal infection (not destroyed because occurs before immunocompensy and see it as sell)
not aborted
stays in the family
230
Noncytopathogenic is virus _____ and antibody _____ while cytopathogenic is virus ____ and antibody ____
Noncytopathogenic: Virus positive, antibody negative
Cytopathogenic: virus negative, antibody positive
231
Border Disease virus
a pestivirus in sheep
lesions:
1) dysmyelination (shaker)
2) wool looks like hair (hairy)
Hairy Shaker Disease
232
What are the two lesions seen with Border Disease Virus
1) Dysmyelination (Shaker)
2) Wool looks like hair (Hair)
Hairy Shaker Disease
233
Pestiviruses
1) BDVD
2) Swine Fever Virus
3) Border Disease Virus
234
derived from trophoblastic ectoderm and extraembryonic mesoderm
chorion
235
How does the chorion form
derived from trophoblastic ectoderm and extraembryonic mesoderm
236
mesodermal bud emerging from the posterior end of the primitive streak. The bud grows and expands across the exocoelomic cavity and fuses with the chorion
allantois
237
What are the functions of the placenta
1) Exchange between mother and fetus- massive surface area, large blood flow. gases and small molecules like gluocse
proteins: limited if any transport can pass (IgG in some species)
Toxins
2) Endocrine functions: significant species differences
Progesterone- all mammals but different quantitity
Estrogens
Gonadotropin -eCG or hCG
238
You see a greenish color of placenta, is this significant
No there is bleeding at margins of placenta- hemolysis and bilirubin.
This is normal
239
Should you rip out a retained placenta?
No- never. it can do damage
240
What species have placenta with microcotyledons
Horses?
241
What is a cervical star with horses
pale area of the placenta which apposes the cervix. It lacks the finger-like villi which give the chorioallantois a velvety appearance
the one spot that is not diffuse
242
You see someone handling placenta of goats with their mouth. Why might this be concerining?
Zoonotic transfer of Brucella or Q-fever
243
Where does the fetal component of the placenta develop from? What about the maternal component?
Fetal: develops from blastocyst
Maternal: Maternal endometrium
244
How might you predict parturition in animals
1) Previous history of dam
2) Breeding dates- gestation length
3) LH surge (dogs)
4) Behavioral changes- segregation, nesting, anorexia, restlessness
5) Physiologic tests (ie body temp, milk calcium levels)
6) Monitor or alarms (Dog temp drops from 101-102.5F to below 100 she will deliver in less than 24 hours)
245
What temperature drop in a dog tells that she is about to deliver pups?
A dog's temp should be between 101-102.5F. When the dog/s temperature drops below 100F she should deliver the pups in less than 24 hours
246
In what species can you tell parturition based on LH surge
Dogs
247
What body changes happen close to parturition that might help you predict when it occurs
1) Relaxation around pelvis and perineum
2) Vulva becomes edematous and relaxes
3) Mammary enlargement, dilation of teat ends
4) Ventral edema (cows and mare)
5) Leaking milk
6) Waxing of teat ends (mare) - colostrum that has just leaked out
248
What is one of the single best indicator of a mare being close to giving birth
Waxing of teat ends where colostrum is leaked out and solidifies. Happens in about 75% of mares
249
Why do you see ventral edema prior to parturition in mares and cattle?
weight of the pregnancy blocks the lymphatic ducts causing a build up of edema
250
What causes the relaxation of cervix and ligaments surrounding the pelvic canal prior to parturition
combination of estrogen and relaxin
250
What causes the increase contractile potential of the myometrium prior to parturition
progesterone drops and removes the block on uterus contractions
allows there to be contractions
251
What controls the time of parturition*
Maturation of fetus determines the readiness of birth
Parturition is triggered when fetus is physiologically read to survive outside the uterus
Fetus sends a signal to the dam to initiate parturition
252
What is the signal for parturition in many species *
fetal ACTH signaling the production and cortisol**
Cortisol causes change in ratio of estradiol to increase and progesterone to decrease
Parturition is driven by prostaglandins and oxytocin, which stimulate myometrial contractions
253
What are the effects of fetal cortisol
changes the ratio of estradiol to increase to progesterone to decrease
parturition is then driven by prostaglandins and oxytocin which stimulate myometrial contractions
254
What does estradiol do prior to parturition
it increases
255
What does progesterone do prior to parturition
it decreases
256
How does fetal cortisol cause the change of estrogen to increase and progesterone to decrease prior to parturition
Corticoids from the fetus activate the 17a hydroxlase, 17-20 desmolase and aromatase that convert progesterone to estradiol.
Since progesterone decreases and estradiol increases, you no longer have the progesterone block to myometrial activity
257
How might the mom be able to alter the timing of parturition
Dam often has limited control over the timing of parturition.
Labor can be delayed temporarily if the dam is stressed or disturbed
Labor is most common at night in many species when external stimuli or activities are minimal
258
What is the signal for parturition
fetal cortisol
259
How did they determine that cortisol induces parturition
Sheep model where removal of the pituitary or adrenal gland from the fetus within pregnant ewes resulted in prolonged pregnancy (no cortisol was able to be released)
Administration of ACTH or cortisol to the ovine fetus resulted in premature labor
Administration of a corticosteroid (dexamethasone) to pregnant ewes also initiates labor
260
During parturition, after increased E:P ratio, what is secreted
PGF2a is secreted from the placenta and endometrium to lyse CL and cause some myometrial contractions
Oxytocin receptor numbers increase on the myometrial cells
261
What initially induces uterine contractions during parturition
PGF2a induces uterine contractions
oxytocin is released from posterior pituitary as fetus contacts cervix- Ferguson reflex
Oxytocin enhances PGF2a release and magnifies uterine contraction
262
What is the Ferguson Reflex *
oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary as the fetus contacts the cervix
this oxytocin enhances PGF2a release and magnifies uterine contractions
263
What triggers the Ferguson Reflex
when the fetus contacts the cervix
release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary
264
How is parturition initiated in CL dependent species like does and sowes
1) Fetal cortisol initiates parturition
2) Placental estrogen increases
3) PGF2a release causes regression of the maternal CL (luteolysis)
4) Labor begins as maternal progesterone concentrations decline
265
How is parturition initiated by litter bearing species
parturition is initiated by signals from entire litter (ie one early maturing fetus cannot trigger labor)
rapidly maturing fetuses may be favored
266
What are the 3 stages of labor *
1) Initiation of myometrial contractions- removal of the progesterone block
2) Delivery/expulsion of the fetus
3) Passage of fetal membranes (placenta)
267
What is Stage I of parturition *
Initiation of myometrial contractions- removal of the progesterone block. fetus moves so head and forelimbs are extended and body rotates into dorsal position
Onset: initial uterine contractions and relaxation of cervix
End: Rupture of chorioallantois (large animals) or full dilation of cervix (small animals)
Clinical signs: anorexia, restlessness, nervousness, frequent lying down, standing, mild discomfort, patchy sweating (mare), increased RR (bitch), actively running or squirting milk
Time: dog (6-12hr), cow (2-6hr), mare (1-4hr)
268
What is Stage II of parturition *
Delivery/expulsion of the fetus
Onset: rupture of chorioallantois
End: Delivery of fetus
Clinical signs: active straining, appearance of white/grey translucent membrane (amnion) at vulva, birth of fetus
Time: varies in species: cow (30-60min), mare (12-30min), bitch (6 hours) - longer in primiparous dams
*delay in delivery process increases risk of fetal or neonatal death
269
What is Stage III of parturition *
Passage of fetal membranes (placenta)
Onset: delivery of fetus
End: passage of fetal membranes
Time: Horse (15min to 3hr), Cow (0.5 to 8 hours), bitch (fetal membranes expelled irregularly between fetuses- dam alternates between stage II and Stage III as each fetus is delivered)
270
What marks the end of Stage I of labor
Rupture of chorioallantois (large animals) or full dilation of cervix (small animals)
271
What marks the onset of Stage I of labor
initial uterine contractions and relaxation of cervix
272
What are the clinical signs of Stage I of labor
anorexia, restlessness, nervousness, frequent lying down, standing, mild discomfort, patchy sweating (mare), increased RR (bitch), actively running or squirting milk
273
What is the onset of Stage II of labor
rupture of chorioallantois
274
What marks the end of Stage II of labor
delivery of fetus
275
What are the clinical signs of Stage II of labor
active straining, appearance of white/grey translucent membrane (amnion) at vulva, birth of fetus
276
What increases the risk of fetal or neonatal death *
Delay in the delivery process (Stage II)
277
What is the difference between uterine contractions of dams with single fetus versus multiple fetuses
Single: Uterine contractions start at horn tips, while caudal portion is relaxed
Multiple: Contractions begin just cranial to caudal- most fetus, forcing it through the birth canal
process is repeated for the next most caudal fetus
278
How do uterine contractions work with multiple fetuses
Contractions begin just cranial to caudal- most fetus, forcing it through the birth canal
process is repeated for the next most caudal fetus
279
How do uterine contractions work with single fetus
Uterine contractions start at horn tips, while caudal portion is relaxed
280
What marks the onset of Stage III of labor
Delivery of fetus
281
What marks the end of Stage III of labor
Passage of fetal membranes
282
What amount of time constitutes a retained placenta in a horse
>3hours being in stage III
normally takes 15 min to 3 hours to pass the fetal membranes
283
How does the dog pass their fetal membranes
fetal membranes expelled irregularly between fetuses- dam alternates between stage II and Stage III as each fetus is delivered
284
placentophagia
act of eating their own placenta
dams of many domestic animal species eat their own placentas
may cause choke or colic in large animals
285
What could result from placentophagia in large animals
choke or colic
286
How do you induce labor *
Ruminants: Corticosteroids (Dexamethasone) - be careful with corticosteroids tx
or prostaglandins
CL dependent species: prostaglandins
Horses: oxytocin
287
How do you induce labor in horses*
Oxytocin
288
When might you induce labor
when they are as close to the normal delivery day
mature fetus- induce it so you get a natural birth
Might do it in a history of mares with stillbirth foals, tendon issues, etc.
289
medical care of a patient throughout pregnancy, delivery and in the post-partum period
Obstetrics
290
slow or difficult labor or delivery
medical emergency
Dystocia
291
Define Presentation, Position, and Posture in regards to labor and delivery
Presentation- relationship of the long axis of the fetus to the dam's birth canal
Position- relationship of the dorsum of the fetus to the quadrants of the dam's pelvis
Posture- relationship of the fetal extremities to the fetus itself
292
relationship of the long axis of the fetus to the dam's birth canal
Presentation
-cranial or caudal or traverse
293
relationship of the dorsum of the fetus to the quadrants of the dam's pelvis
position
294
relationship of the fetal extremities to the fetus itself
posture
295
That is the normal presentation of the fetus during birth
Anterior presentation
296
What the the possibilities of presentation during birth
1) Anterior (normal)
2) Posterior
3) Transverse
297
What are the possibilities of position during birth
1) Dorso-sacral (normal)
2) Dorsal-pubic
3) Dorsal-right ileal
4) Dorsal left ileal
298
What is the normal position during birth
Dorso-sacral (normal)
299
What is dorsal-pubic position
When the position of fetus (dorsum) is positioned towards the pubis of the the dam's pelvis (upside down)
300
What is the normal posture during birth
Head extended, both front and legs are extendend
301
What are the different possibilities of posture during birth
1) Head-extended, both front legs extended (normal)
2) Head back to the right of the fetus, both front legs are extended
3) Etc
302
What is the normal orientation in the birth canal ****
1) Anterior presentation
2) Dorsal-sacral postion
3) Both forelimbs and head extended (posture)
303
in large animals, dystocia is most common in
first-calf heifers (maternal mismatch- fetus is too large and dam is too small relative to fetus)
cattle-incidence ranges from 3-25%
sows- 1-2%
mares 4-14%
304
What are fetal causes of dystocia
1) Abnormal presentation, position or posture
2) Developmental abnormalities
3) Dead or sick fetus
305
What are obstructive causes of dystocia
1) Fetal- maternal mismatch- fetus is too large and dam is too small relative to fetus (first calf heifers and toy dog breeds)
2) Maternal pathology (decreased diameters of the birth canal)
- pelvic fractures (mares)
-failure of cervical dilation (ewes- ringwomb)
3) Mechanical: abnormalities in presentation, position, and posture
306
How might mare have decreased diameter of the birth canal
pelvic fractures
307
What is ringwomb in sheep
decreased diameter of birth canal due to failure of cervical dilation in ewes
308
Why is a posterior presentation problematic
the tailhead can get hooked on the top of the pelvis and leads to dystocia because it cant get out
309
If you palpate an animal giving birth and all you feel is the dorsal spinal processes of the vertebrae, what presentation is the fetus in
transverse presentation
310
What is the true breech orientation
1) Posterior presentation
2) dorsosacral postion
3) both hind limb flexed at hip
311
Does the transverse presentation stimulate the ferguson reflex in the mare? *
NO- ferguson reflex is not triggered
312
failure of effective first or second stage of labor
Uterine inertia
313
Uterine inertia
failure of effective first or second stage of labor
Primary (no contraction)- failure to initiate labor
-Bitch and sow
-Cows- hypocalcemia (milk fever)
Secondary: uterine fatigue following prolonged labor
314
How might an animal have primary uterine inertia
Primary (no contraction)- failure to initiate labor
-Bitch and sow
-Cows- hypocalcemia (milk fever)
315
What are difficulty foaling complications
-Front legs flexed at shoulder
-neck flexed to side; muzzle not reachable
-breech presentation
-transverse presentation
-twins (both entering birth canal simultaneously)
316
is often required to deliver fetus and saeve the life of the dam and/or fetus
obstetrical intervention
317
What are rules of obstetrical intervention
1) cleanliness
2) Lubrication- obstetrical lubricant (J-lube)
3) Expedience- significant progress should be made in 20-30 minutes
318
What is the importance of the physical exam in obstetrical intervention
-diagnose/identify obstetrical problem
-determine if fetus is alive (palpation, U/S, EKG, etc.)
-Formulate a plan- vaginal delivery (assisted or controlled), cesarean section, fetotomy
319
What forms of restraint might be needed for obstetrical intervention
physical restraint
transquiliation
epidural anesthesia
general anesthesia
320
manipulation process by which a fetus is returned to a normal presentation, position, or posture
mutation
321
a mutation where pushing the fetus cranially out of the maternal pelvic canal into the abdominal cavity where more space is available for manipulation
Repulsion
322
a mutation where turning a fetus on its long axis (ie to move the hips of a calf fetus to take advantage of the widest pelvic diameter to prevent hip-lock
Rotation
323
a mutation where rotating a fetus perpendicular to its long axis to correct a transverse presentation (ie into a cranial or caudal presentation- very difficult
Version
324
withdrawl of the fetus from the dam using outside force or traction
1) force of 2 people
2) Pull during a contraction
3) Relax in between contractions
Extraction
325
What are the guidelines of extraction?
1) force of 2 people
2) Pull during a contraction
3) Relax in between contractions
326
What are indications for extraction
-Uterine inertia
-Fetus not entering birth canal
-Epidural/ general anesthesia- absence of uterine contractions
-Large fetus
-Fetotomy - after transection of retained body part
327
What are the contraindications for extraction
-abnormal presentation, position or posture
-excessively large or deformed fetuses
-excessively small/ stenotic cervix or small birth canal
328
What is assisted vaginal delivery *
vaginal delivery with the dam awake and either standing or recumbent
-sedation, epidural (if needed)
329
What is controlled vaginal delivery *
vaginal delivery with the dam under general anesthesia
-reduces straining, allows for repositioning of fetus
-can elevate hindquarters to reposition fetus
No uterine contractions (while under anesthesia)
330
a surgical procedure in which the fetus is removed from the uterus through an incision through an the abdominal wall and uterus
Cesarean section- laparohysterotomy
331
What is the procedure of choice if vaginal delivery is not possible and the fetus is alive
Cesarean section
332
What is a fetotomy
an operation performed on a dead fetus to expedite removal of the fetus from the uterus
-accomplished by reducing the size of the fetus by removal of specific body parts that are preventing the normal vaginal delivery
333
How do you determine the live/dead status of the fetus
-Fetal movement in response to stimuli
a) fingers in mouth- evaluate suckling response
b) Pinch tongue- evaluate for reflex
c) Pressure on eye- evaluate for withdrawal reflex
d) Pinch nose- evaluate reflex
-Detection of fetal pulse
a) Umbilical cord (pulsation)
b) Heartbeat (hand on chest)
334
What are the advantages of fetotomy
-Reduces size of fetus (allows for extraction of fetus)
-Avoids Cesarean surgery
-May reduce trauma to dam (vs excessive traction)
-May be less expensive than Cesarean
335
What are disadvantages of fetotomy
-may cause uterine trauma
-may take a long time
-requires several people (some training/experience helpful)
-Potential for injury to person performing fetotomy
-Live/dead if status of fetus unknown
336
What are possible complications to all obstetrical interventions
-Metritis, peritonitis
-Retained placenta
-Uterine, cervical or vaginal injury
-Reduction in future fertility- dependent on many factors
337
What are outcomes of dystocia in the mare
Foal survival- survival rate is low to moderate, highly dependent on early recognition, duration and type of dystocia, intervention
Mare survival: survival rate- moderate to high
Mare future reproduction: pregnancy rate- good in absence of uterine/cervical trauam
338
wry
twist deformity in the neonate that can cause dystocia
339
schistosomus
where the body wall didnt close in the fetus. GI content will be out
340
Stage I of parturition in canine
synchronous uterine contractions leading to complete cervical dilation
anorexia, restlessness, panting, shivering, nesting
averages 6-12 hours
nervous, primiparous bitches can experience up to 36 hours of stage I
340
Stage 1 of parturition in feline
synchronous uterine contractions leading to complete cervical dilation
restless, nesting, panting, vocalizing
can last 1 hour to 24 hours
341
How do dogs act when they are in stage I of parturition
anorexia, restlessness, panting, shivering, nesting
averages 6-12 hours
nervous, primiparous bitches can experience up to 36 hours of stage I
342
What is the difference in timing of stage I of parturition compared to dogs and cat
Dog: 6-24 hours
Cats: 1-24 hours
343
Tocodynamometry
a device used to detect uterine contractions
344
Stage II parturition (canine)
puppies moving through the birth canal
usually delivered every 30-60 minutes
up to 2 hours between can be normal
stage II usually complete in 6 hours, can extend up to 24 hours
345
T/F: cats can interrupt labor if disturbed
True- several hours between delivery can be normal
345
Stage II parturition (feline)
kittens moving through the birth canal
first kittens typically delivered within 60 minutes of onset of stage II
usually delivered every 30-60 minutes
extended delivery more common in queens than bitches
-can interrupt labor if disturbed
-several hours between delivery can be normal
346
Stage III (canine and feline)
expulsion of fetal membranes
often occurs during stage II
pass with puppies or within 15 minutes
retained fetal membranes are rare in canine
347
T/F: retained placentas are common in dogs
false- they are pretty rare
348
What is the incidence of canine dystocia
5-28%
349
What is the most common (non-obstructuve.) cause of dystocia in the bitch*
primary uterine inertia
"failure of uterus to begin labor at full term"
-uterus fails to respond to fetal signals and insufficient stimulation exist to initiate labor
-small litters
-large litters (overstretch myometrium)
-inherited predisposition
350
How might primary uterine inertia occur in dogs
-small litters
-large litters (overstretch myometrium)
-inherited predisposition
351
What is Primary Uterine inertia in small animals
"failure of uterus to begin labor at full term"
-uterus fails to respond to fetal signals and insufficient stimulation exist to initiate labor
-small litters (1-2)
-large litters (overstretch myometrium)
-inherited predisposition
*Incompletely dilated cervix
factors: genetic*, nutritional, hormonal- obesity, malnutrition, parity, age
352
What is secondary uterine inertia in small animals
continued uterine contractions fail to expel fetuses
uterine musculature eventually fails
caused by obstruction of the birth canal
353
What are the maternal and fetal factors of dystocia in small animals
Maternal: Breed, conformation, uterus (torsion, rupture, adhesion), pain, feat, primary and secondary uterine inertia
Fetal: presentation, posture, position, abnormal fetal development (40% born caudal longitudinal)
354
What is the normal presentation of fetus in bitch birth
cranial longitudinal presentation
(presentation is the relationship of the spinal column of the fetus to that of the bitch and to the portion of the fetus presented to the birth canal)
355
What is the criteria for dystocia in dogs*
1) Stage II abdominal contractions with no delivery in 20-30 minutes (hard pushes)
2) >2 hours between delivery of fetuses- weak stage II contractions
3) Presence of uteroverdin (green) without the delivery of a subsequent pup
4) Abundant serous fluid (allantoic fluid, waterbreaking) without delivery of pup within one hour
5) Fetal membranes visible- "allantochorion pouch" visible without the delivery of pup within one hour
6) >1 hour after onset of weak contractions (rupture of chorioallantois) and no pups
7) Systemic illness/collapse- sepsis, pregnancy toxemia, uterine rupture look at the same on presention
8) Prolonged gestation
9) Fetal distress
10) Partial birth
356
What is the normal position of the fetus during bitch birth
Dorsosacral
(refers to the relationship between the dorsum of the fetus and the quadrants of the maternal pelvis)
357
What is a normal posture of the fetus during bitch birth
Forelimbs extended
(refers to the relationship of the fetal extremities to the fetal body)
358
What is the normal presentation, position, and posture in the dog?
1) Cranial longitudinal presentation
2) Dorsosacral
3) Forelimbs are extended
359
T/F: it is possible to determine an accurate due date based on breeding dates in dogs
False- it is impossible
Dogs will stand to be bred for days
Normal gestation can be 57-72 days post a single breeding date
360
How long is normal dog gestation
Normal gestation can be 57-72 days post a single breeding date
all are prolonged if ?72 days post breeding
some at overdue at 65 days
breeding day is not good at determining due date
361
What defines a prolonged canine pregnancy
1) >66 days post LH surge
2) >64 days post ovulation (ovulation typically consistant with 4-5 ng/ml progesterone)
3) >60 days after onset of cytological diestrus
4) >12-24 hours post drop in progesterone to <2ng/ml
362
How do you determine fetal distress on ultrasound
generally accepted that a normal fetal heart rate is 180-220 bpm
-HR of 150-180 is consistent with fetal distress
-Heart rate <150 is considered emergency
-Heart rate <100 is very poor/ grave prognosis
363
What is a normal fetal heart rate of dog
180-220bpm
364
What fetal heart rate is consistent with fetal distress
150-180bpm
365
What fetal heart rate is consistent with emergency
<150 bpm
366
Can you give definitive numbers of offpsrings with ultrasound?
No you cannot
367
How do you evaluate dystocia in small animals
-Assess general health and present condition- provide supportive care if necessary
-Reproductive tract health
a) Vaginal discharge- amount, duration, character
b) Vaginal palpation- palpable fetus, obstruction, is the Ferguson reflex present or prior delivery of 1 or more pup
c) Blood profile (CBC) and progesterone level (<2ng/ml inability to support pregnancy; 2-4.9 is consistent with declining levels)
d) Abdominal radiographs- fetal number, size, position, evidence of fetal death. Pelivmetry is poorly coorelated with dystocia prediction in the bitch
e) Ultrasound for fetal viability af fetal stress
368
What will not work if the ferguson reflex is not present ****
Medical management will not be effective
369
In small animals, what makes medical management for dystocia not effective ***
Lack of ferguson reflex
370
Can you palpate the cervix of the dog?
No- you are likely feeling the vaginovestibular junction
371
When evaluating dystocia and you test for progesterone level. What do the levels tell you
<2.0 ng/ml is inability to support pregnancy
2.0-4.9 ng/ml is. consistent with declining level
5.0 or greater is a functioning CL
372
In the bitch, ______ is poorly correlated with dystocia prediction via abdominal radiographs
pelvimetry
373
What can abdominal radiographs tell you when evaluating dystocia
fetal number, size, position
evidence of fetal death
*pelvimetry is poorly correlated with dystocia prediction in the bitch
374
What is the difference between mild and severe dystocia in small animals
Mild dystocia: healthy bitch with normal conformation, pups normal size and appropriate position, no evidence of obstruction, no evidence of fetal distress or compromise, 4 or less pups remaining, weak or infrequent contractions
*Eligible for medical management
Severe dystocia: obvious oversized fetuses, evidence of fetal compromise, green/black discharge with no pup born in 20-30 minutes, progesterone level <2ng/ml for 24 hours, obstructive dystocia (any cause), dystocia for any reason with 4 or more pups remaining
*Advise C section
375
What is mild dystocia in small animals classified as
*Eligible for medical management (Manipulative, medical, c section)
-healthy bitch with normal conformation
-pups normal size and appropriate position
-no evidence of obstruction
-no evidence of fetal distress or compromise
-4 or less pups remaining
-weak or infrequent contractions
376
What should you do for a small animal with severe dystocia
Advise surgical intervention (C-section)
377
What is severe dystocia classified as in small animals
-obvious oversized fetuses
-evidence of fetal compromise
-green/black discharge with no pup born in 20-30 minutes
-progesterone level <2ng/ml for 24 hours
-obstructive dystocia (any cause)
-dystocia for any reason with 4 or more pups remaining
*Advice C section
378
Manipulation intervention in small animals
used for mild cases of dystocia
grasp fetus and provide gentle traction to remove it from the canal, preferably during a contraction
use lots of lube
dont pull limb or tail
pull during contraction if possible
changing positions of bitch might help
379
When should you do medical intervention for dystocia in small animals
only if the bitch has 4 or less pups remaining and the birth canal is unobstructed
only about 28% chance of success
Calcium and Oxytocin are drugs of choice
380
What do you use for medical intervention of dystocia in small animals
Oxytocin- uterine contraction action, milk ejection action, direct action on the rate of calcium influx into the myometrial cells
Calcium- affects the strength of uterine contractions, monitor heart rate and rhythm using ECG
381
What does oxytocin do to treat dystocia
uterine contraction action, milk ejection action, direct action on the rate of calcium influx into the myometrial cells
382
What drug can you give to increase the strength of uterine contractions
Calcium gluconate - monitor heart rate and rhythm using ECG
383
Protocol for medical intervention of small animal dystocia
-Oxytocin
-if no pup is born in 30 minuts, give 10% calcium gluconate
-If no pup born in 20 minutes, igve another dose of oxytocin as described above
-If delivery begins, but slowly you can repeat doses of oxytocin every 30 minutes with a max of 3 doses
-If no pus with above, advice C section
384
Manipulative intervention in small animals should be done when
there is a palpable fetus
pup is in birth canal
assist by gentle traction during contraction
use lots of lube
dont pull limb or tail
change position of bitch
385
What should you do if there is unsuccessful manipulative intervention in small animals with dystocia
Attempt more than 10 minutes and obstruction becomes evident with fetal distress/ compromise
you may attempt episotomy is delivery is close and last pup is present
or advise C section
386
What should you do if you do medical intervention with oxytocin and calcium to treat mild dystocia in small animals and it is unsuccessful
Advise C section
387
What breeds of cats have higher prevalence of dystocia
Purebreds- flat faces
388
In cats, what maternal factor of dystocia is life threatening*
torsion, rupture, adhesion
389
What is by far the most common cause of dystocia in cats
primary uterine inertia (same etiology as canine)
390
How might cats get secondary uterine inertia
same as dog
common with all causes of obstructive dystocia
uterine fatigue with large litters
391
What are abnormal fetal development causes of fetal factor dystocia in cats
Large fetus
Cephalopelvic disproportion
392
What are factors for dystocia diagnosis in cats
active labor (stage II) for more than 2 hours with no kitten born
69-70 days from breeding- prolonged gestation
-failure of labor to begin within 24 hours with rectal temp drop >1 F
-Partial birth- kitten and/or membranes visible for more than 15 minutes with no progress
-Failure to deliver all kittens within 24 hours
-Signs of systemic illness
-More than 3 hours between birth of normal kittens
-Abnormal vulvar discharge- hemorrhage, green/blck discharge
-Fetal distress- heart rate similar to puppies
393
In cats, can you use progesterone for onset of labor
NO
394
Is medical intervention of dystocia more common in dogs or cats *
cats
1) Do not attempt Medical therapy unless you are prepared for surgical intervention
2) Make sure to discuss risks and poor success rate of medical management
395
What considerations should you make for medical therapy of dystocia in kittens *
cats
1) Do not attempt Medical therapy unless you are prepared for surgical intervention
2) Make sure to discuss risks and poor success rate of medical management (all most never works)
*Do C section instead
396
When should you advise C section in a queen
if there is severe dystocia
*or at all- medical management really isnt that successful and there are risks
397
What are the length of stages of parturition in dog, how does this different from the cat *
Dog
1: 6-12 hours
2: 30-60 minutes
3: 15 minutes
Cat
1: 1-24 hours
2: 30-60minuts
3: 15 minutes
398
What hormone declines in parturition in dogs and cats *
Progesterone
399
What is the most common (non-obstructive) cause of dystocia in the bitch **
Primary Uterine Inertia
"Failure of uterus to begin labor at full term"
uterus fails to respond to fetal signals and insufficient stimulation exists to initiate labor
400
What are the chances of success of medical management of dystocia in dogs **
only about 28%
401
Do dogs need oxytocin if they are already experiencing uterine contractions? *
No - they might need calcium gluconate as it affects strength of uterine contractions
monitor heart rate and rhythm using ECG
402
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
obvious oversized fetuses
Severe
403
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
Green and black discharge with no pup born in 20-30 min
Severe
404
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
Progesterone level <2ng/ml for 24 hours
Severe
405
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
Obstructive dystocia
Severe
406
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
Dystocia with 4 or more pups remaining
severe
407
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
4 or less pups remaining
mild
408
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
healthy bitch with normal conformation
mild
409
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
Weak or infrequent contractions
Mild dystocia
410
Mild of Severe Canine Dystocia?
No evidence of fetal distress or compromise
Mild
411
Where is mammary tissue derived from
ectoderm
band (30days) thru bud stage (43 days in cattle)
412
Fetal development and growth of mammary gland
1) Bud is spherical -cells break out of sphere
forms branchs calld primary sprouts
2) Sprouts (galactrophores) differentiate into teat and gland cisterns
3) Center dies, leading canal (d100-130)
4) Secondary sprouts branch from primary
5) Mammary fat pad and median suspensory ligament develop from mesoderm (210 days)
413
Ruminants have _____ galactophores per teat
1
414
Pigs have _____ galactophores per teat
2
415
Mares have ______ galactophores per teat
2
2 opening per teat
416
What occurs during fetal development of the mammary gland in males
Bud is spherical and cells break out of sphere forming primary sprout, however, testosterone causes pinching off sprout from bud leading to failure of teat development
417
How many teats do cows have
2 teats
1 duct per teat
418
How many teats do sheep and goats have
2 teats
1 duct per teat
419
How many teats do dogs have
10 teats
12 ducts/teat
420
How many teats do mares have
2 teats
2 ducts/teats
421
How many teats do pigs have
10-14
2 ducts/teat
422
When does isometric mammary gland development occur in cattle
it grows proportionally to the rest of the body
Birth to 2-3 months
423
When does allometric mammary gland growth occur
2-3 months to 1 year (pUberty) where the parenchyma of the mammary gland increases
-Requires adequate fat pad
-But risk of overfeeding/excessive fat depositon
424
During puberty what is responsible for mammary development
Estrogen- stimulate ductal development
Progesterone- proliferation of stromal cells, stimualte ductal side branching and alveolar bud formation
425
Why in short-cycle mammals like mice, rats, hamsters, and gerbils there is no alveoli or end buds until pregnancy
because there is little progesterone available
426
Why in long-cycling mammals does mammary gland development occur during puberty
cyclic production of FSH and LH
-varies produce estradiol and progesterone
-duct development under influence of estrogen, growth hormone in first few cycles, progesterone and prolactin: lobules and alveoli develop
427
What causes mammary development during pregnancy and lactation
Consistent high levels of progesterone and placental lactogen, estradiol as well
Growth of gland is slow in early pregnancy, becomes exponential as pregnancy progresses
Mammary fat pad replaced with ducts, alveoli, blood vessels, and connective tissue
428
When does mammary development cease in most animals
after the first lactation
except in cattle and goats- their mammary gland will increase up to 4 lactations
429
Mammary gland size in goats and cattle will develop up to
4 lactations
however >12 declines
430
What increase in milk production would you expect to see with increases in parity
2nd time calving; 10pounds/day higher than 1st time heifers and increasing
but mammary gland size only increases up to 4 lactations
431
What is progesterone's role in lactogenesis
it inhibits prolactin-induced synthesis of prolactin receptors
inhibits production of a-lactablumin (glucose to lactose)
binds to glucocorticoid sites, prevents GC effects
*Delays lactogenesis during pregnancy
432
it inhibits prolactin-induced synthesis of prolactin receptors
inhibits production of a-lactablumin (glucose to lactose)
binds to glucocorticoid sites, prevents GC effects
*Delays lactogenesis during pregnancy
Progesterone
433
What is the role of estrogen in lactogenesis
stimulatory effect
-decreases anterior pituitary lactotroph sensitivity to dopamine leading to prolactin secretion
434
How does estrogen stimulate prolactin secretion
decreases anterior pituitary lactotroph sensitivity to dopamine (inhibitory) leading to prolactin secretion
435
What are the effects of prolactin in lactogenesis
stimulatory effects
-Increases receptors
with glucocorticoids and estrogen- increases casein synthesis
-Stimulates synthesis of lactalbumen
Placental lactogen stikmulatory effects: binds to prolactin receptors
436
Prolactin increases casein synthesis with
glucocorticoids and estrogen
437
What stimulates milk letdown
Oxytocin
438
What inhibits milk letdown
Epinephrine
-Increase tone inf ducts and blood vessel; inhibits oxytocin reaching the alveoli
-Block oxytocin from binding to myoepithelial cell
439
How does epinephrine inhibit milk let down
-Increase tone inf ducts and blood vessel; inhibits oxytocin reaching the alveoli
-Block oxytocin from binding to myoepithelial cell
440
When do cows reach their peak of milk production
90 days and then slowly decreases
441
How long should the dry period be of not milking a cow be
about the last 60 days of their gestation dried off to recover
udder involutes and goes towards pregnancy
442
How old should dairy heifers be at their first calving
22-24 months of age
443
What are typical dairy conception and pregnancy rates
Conception: 50%
Pregnancy: 20%
444
Why do lactating ruminants get ketosis
minor GI glucose absorption. rumen microflora digest all simple carbs, generating VFA
only propionate can go to glucose and there are obligate glucose demands (late term fetus and lactose synthesis)
Lack of CHOs increase lipoysis and increase NEFA generating ketones
445
Involution of the gland
Increased hydrostatic pressure (milk is not being removed)
-exceeds capillary hydrostatic pressure, thus fluid absorbed and reduces milk synthesis
Ductal cells resorb- size and number of alveolar cells
Lysosomal enzymes break down and digest epithelial cells
Secretion absorbed by lymphatic and venous drainage
446
What are the stages of mammary gland involution
1) Active involution: milk secreted at unchanged rate 2-4 days, complete cessation after 30 days
2) Steady state: secretory cells are reduced gradually: if dry too long, replaced by adipose tissue and subsequent production is reduced
3) Redevelopment and colostrogenesis
*Recommended goal of 45 days (30 day dry period appears to be adequate- colostrogenesis)
but 70-80+ is detrimentral
447
Why is an adequate dry period
Recommended goal of 45 days (30 day dry period appears to be adequate- colostrogenesis)
but 70-80+ is detrimentral - parenchyma gets replaced by adipose tissue
448
Bovine milk composition
Water -88%
Lactose- 4.9% Major osmole, progesterone inhibits, prolactin stimulates
Fat (3.4%)- wide species variability, triacylglycerol, apocrine secretion from ER
Protein (3.3%)- casein, a-lactalbumin, b-lactoglobulin, secreted within golgi vesicles
Minerals (0.7%)
449
What controls milk volume
Lactose- major osmole in milk
450
Milk fat depression syndrome
<3.3% fat and higher protein
1) High milk production: low fiber ration, forage chopped too fine or course
2) Low Milk production: severe energy deficit- acetate diverted to ketone production for non-mammary energy demands (muscle, heart, kidney)
451
How does a holstein get high milkfat >3.8% milk
fair to poor milk production
severe body condition loss
inadequate energy intake leading to mobilization of body fat leading to increase availability of TG, GA for milk fat synthesis
Insufficient glucose/ propionate for lactose synthesis
452
What is A2 milk
A1 beta-casein blamed for chronic disease and some claim milk intolerance lessened in A2 milk
A2 differs by one amino acid (recessive trait)
some breeds have higher frequency of A1 like herseys
often get more money for it
453
How might there be failure of passive transfer
Quantity: need dairy (holstein) 1 gallon in first 5 hours, failure to absorb (chilled calf)
Quality: dam health and immune status, breed, lactation, and leaking, harvest and storage
Quickness: race betwee nIg, bugs, and time
454
Bovine and Equine colostrum tends to be high in _____ but low in ______
High: IgG
Low: IgM and IgA
455
Canine colostrum tends to be high in ______
IgA
456
How might a calf not absorb colostrum
if they are too cold
457
What values of colostrum do you need
50mg/ml on Bricks
22% of greater on refractometet
458
Ig primarily absorbed by special enterocyte functional for __________
24-36 hours
really 12-24
459
You need to get _______ gallons of colostrum in the calf by the _______ *
1 gallons within the first 5 hours
460
Absorption of colostrum occurs within
first 12-24 hours (gone by 36 hours)
abomasal digestive enzymes are in low quantities for first 48 hours
Ig primarily absorbed by special enterocytes function for 24-36 hours
leaky gut goes both ways- calves will secrete IgG from colostrum back into the gut lumen
461
inappropriate milk production by pregnant female prior to parturition
-precocious mammary development in young non-pregnant animals
-Estrogenic compounds (zeralenone)
-Cystic ovarian disease in heifers
-Suckling by herdmates or self
-Genetics (heavy milking lines)
Galactorrhea
462
What might cause galactorrhea
-precocious mammary development in young non-pregnant animals
-Estrogenic compounds (zeralenone)
-Cystic ovarian disease in heifers
-Suckling by herdmates or self
-Genetics (heavy milking lines)
463
What do you need to rule out in cases of galactorrhea
mastitis
464
Galactorrhea treatment
rule out mastitis
Do not milk out unless prepared to treat like lactating animal - predispose to ascending infections
Mastectomy for pets
*Not a lot of treatment options aside from stopping the causes
465
Where do you typically see displaced glandular tissue in goats
vulva
466
condition of producing no/too little milk
more common in pigs, horses, camelids
non-specific sequelae to severe dystocia, illness, starvation, pregnancy toxemia (sheep and goats)
Agalactia
467
Agalactia is a nonspecific sequelae to
severe dystocia, illness, starvation, pregnancy toxemia (sheep and goats)
468
What species is agalactia more common in
pigs, horses, camelids
469
What is Sow MMA syndrome
Mastitis/ Metritis/ Agalactia syndrome
occurs close to farrowing (first three days)- udder but no let down or drying up. Pigs starved unless supplemented
multifactorial- older fatter sows or poor facility hygiene
Limited Treatment: Oxytocin/ +/- antibiotics +/- NSAID
470
Why do sows get MMA
they old, fatter
they in poor facilities (hygiene)
multifactorial and poorly understood
471
How do you treat sows with agalactia
Oxytocin/ +/- antibiotics +/- NSAID
472
How might a mare get agalactia
Ergotism in mares- tall fescue infected with Neotyphodium coenophialum
Ergopeptine alkaloids are dopamine agonist which inhibits prolactin secretion and agalactia results
leads to prolonged gestation and placental edema
Treatment: Domperidone (dopamine antagonist) - Equidone
473
How do ergopeptine alkaloids cause agalactia
dopamine agonist which inhibits prolactin secretion
474
What is result of horses eating tall fescue infected with Neotyphodium coenophialum
Ergopeptine alkaloids are dopamine agonist which inhibits prolactin secretion and agalactia results
leads to prolonged gestation and placental edema
Treatment: Domperidone (dopamine antagonist) - Equidone
475
How do you treat ergotism induced agalactia in mares
Domperidone (dopamine antagonist) - Equidone
476
Domperidone is a
dopamine antagonist used to treat ergotism and agalactia in mares
477
What might interfere with milk letdown in cattle
Stress-induced (epinephrine) interference with oxytocin effects
-exogenous oxytocin works for a little but they become dependent on it
common in first lactation dary cows (new environment and handling)
478
What breed of cattle have greater incidence of milk letdown
Bos indicus cattle
479
intercellular fluid accumulation in the mammary gland
Udder edema
-acute or chronic
-reduced mammary blood flow?
-Risk factors: periparturient heifer (first calving)
480
Udder edema is commonly seen in
Periparturient heifer (first calving)
age at first calving, genetics, milk production and fetal sex
-feeding excess salt
-obesity, inactivity over conditioning
-male calves (dystocia)
-winter calving (oxidative stress)
need to differentiate from mastitis
481
How do you treat udder edema
Dietary Cation-Anion Difference diet - lpw salts
antioxidants Vit E and Zn
Diuretics
+ early milk out
482
Why do we care about udder edema
1) interferes with milk removal
-colostrum (nursing)
-milk unit attachment
-Milk let down
2) disrupts median suspensory ligament
3) frostbite
483
Why might you see Udder Asymmetry
Nonpathologic- nursing/milking preference
Pathologic
a) Acute Mastitis
b) Chronic Mastitis- abscesses, induration, non-functional gland
c) Masses- CHANGS
484
What is CHANGS for all the differentials that can cause udder asymmetru
Cysts
Hematoma
Abscess
Neoplasia
Granuloma
Seroma
485
In dogs, _____ of mammary tumors are malignant while ______ are benign
50% malignant
50% benign
risk reduced to 0.5% if spayed before the first heat cycle
486
How do mammary tumors spread
through the lymphtics
487
Mammary tumors in dogs
50% malignant
50% benign
Risk reduced to 0.5% if spayed before first heat cycle
Spread through the lymphatics
Posterior 2 glands are more commonly affected
Carcinomas, sarcomas, carcinosarcomas, adenomas
488
The majority of mammary tumors in cats are
Malignant adenocarcinomas
86% reduction if spayed before first heat cycle
489
Mammary tumors in cats
Majority are Malignant adenocarcinomas
86% reduction if spayed before first heat cycle
also they hae Glandular mammary hypertrophy syndrome-
490
T/F: mammary tumors are rare in ruminants and horses
True
491
inflammation of the mammary gland
typically due to bacterial infections
Mastitis / Intra-mammary infection
492
Clinical Severity levels of mastitis in cattle
Subclinical: Increase in SCC +/- positive culture
Mild: Increase in SCC +/- position culture and abnormal milk
Moderate: Increase in SCC +/- position culture, abnormal milk, and inflamed udder
Severe: Increase in SCC +/- position culture, abnormal milk, inflamed udder, and sick cow
493
Subclinical mastitis cows will have
Increase in SCC +/- positive culture
494
Mild mastitis cows will have
Increase in SCC +/- position culture and abnormal milk
495
Moderate mastitis cows will have
Increase in SCC +/- position culture, abnormal milk, and inflamed udder
496
Severe mastitis cows will have
Increase in SCC +/- position culture, abnormal milk, inflamed udder, and sick cow
497
California Mastitis Test (CMT)
Pick on quarter per well
equal amounts of milk and gel
see increased gel and purple color with increased SCC
not good for subclinical infections
498
How do you treat mastitis in cattle
depends on pathogen and severity
-Intramammary antibiotics- lactating vs dry
-Systemic antibiotics
-NSAIDS
-Fluids and supportive care
-Cull/ euthanize
-Kill quarter or amputate teat
499
What is the difference between contagious vs environmental mastitis pathogens
Contagious
a) from infected cows
b) subclinical infections
c) excellent ability to colonize gland
d) Duration of infection- lifetime of cow
d) Excellent ability for cow to cow transfer
Environmental
a) form mud, manure, bedding, watter
b) Clinical
c) Fair to poor colonization ability
d) Days to weeks infection
e) fair to poor potential for cow to cow transfer
500
Is contagious or environmental mastitis pathogens more likely to cause clinical mastitis
Environmental: Clinical
Contagious: Subclinical
501
Are contagious or environmental mastitis pathogens better at colonizing the gland
Contagious have netter ability to colonize gland
Environmental: fair to poor
502
Is contagious or environmental mastitis pathogens more likely to infect the lifetime of the cow
Contagious: lifetime of cow
Environmental: days to weeks
503
What pathogens are strictly environmental causes of mastitis
Coliforms
A/ pyogenes
Pseudomonas
Prototheca
Yeast
504
What pathogens are strictly contagious causes of mastitis
Strep. ag
Mycoplasma
505
What is the mechanism of mastitis infection
1) Organisms deposited on teat end
2) Streak canal infection
3) Moves into the glands
506
What is the single most effective practice to reduce incidence of contagious mastitis *
Post-milking teat dipping
507
Post-milking teat dipping is ___________
the single most effective practice to reduce incidence of contagious mastitis *
508
What is key to control environmental mastitis *
1) Integrity of the teat end immune defenses
2) Pre-milking teat dip
3) Clean housing
4) Hygienic milking practices
509
Pre-Milking Prep steps
1) Dip: Disinfectant with contact time
2) Strip: Teat stimulation and ID mastitis
3) Dry: and clean on teat ends
4) Attach: lag time for let down
510
milk removed by vacuum at teat end
limit time in low flow of milk (get good oxytocin stimulation)
Machine milking
511
How might teat hyperkeratosis occur
from overmilking (also causes low milk flow) or leaving the milking machine on for too long
-you will see a purple ring
512
composed of two adjacent heavy yellow elastic sheets of tissue that arise from the abdominal wall and that attach to the medial flat surfaces of the two udder halves.
separates R and L sides
Median suspensory ligament
*strains in older animals
513
Where do supernumerary teats typically occur in cattle
behind the hind teats
connected to normal teats- orifice at base, on side of teat
usually have glandular tissue
514
What are different congenital teat obstructions
a) Imperforate plate at gland cistern
b) Absence of teat cistern
c) Absence of streak canal
515
What supplies blood to the mammary gland
Femoral artery
External pudendal a ***
Subcutanous abdominal vein (Milk vein)
also ventral perineal a (small amount)
516
What is the ration of blood flow to milk
400:1
lots of blood flow to the mammary gland
injuries to the milk vein are emergencies
517
As the calf grows, what veins antastomase to form the milk vein (subcutaneous abdominal vein)
cranial and caudal epigastric vein
518
The alveolus is composed us
myoepithelial cells
capillary network
519
What percent of milk is glandular milk in cattle
80% is glandular milk
milk letdown is needed for this
20% milk in cistern (do not need oxytocin)
*small ruminants. are opposite
520
What are the components of the streak canal
-circular smooth muscle
-epithelium
-keratin plug
521
Spectrum of calf problems
Non infectious
a) Poor adaptation
b) metabolic/ physiologic
Infectious
a) Localized/ superficial
b) Focal/ inflammatory
c) Septicemic
522
What typically happens to the calf when less than 2 days old
Perinatal
typically non--infectious
associated with physiological derangements- birthing trauma, difficult postnatal adaptation
523
What typically causes death of calves when greater than 3 days old
Neonatal *
Likely infectious in nature
524
In calves, potential physiologic problems that dont kill
may predispose to infectious problems
525
What is the percent breakdown of calves that die at different periods of being alive
First 24 hours: 31.3%
24 hours to 3 weeks: 35%
3 weeks to weaning: 33.7%
Majority of calves that die are less than 3 weeks = perinatal and neonatal
526
What is needed for blood oxygenation and oxygen delivery in the neonate
Pulmonary blood flow
Ventilation- lung expansion, lung fluid
Physical/muscular activity
CV function
Circulatory fluid function
527
Fluid volume and balance of Calves when they are born
-Normal tissue hydration
-Volume depletion/ contraction
-Need fluid supplementation to maintain circulatory volume
528
How do neonates perform thermogenesis
Non-shivering- Brown fat metabolism (2% of calves) which is highly vascular, metabolically active via aerobic metabolism. Blood shunted through brown fat to increase
Shivering- of skin and skeletal muscle. increases heat production by 33-100%
hypoglycemic and hypoexemic calves do not shiver
Physical activity- most important. trying to stand calf- increases heat production by 33-100%. In first 10min of standing, the calf increases heat production by 100%
calves that do not try to stand get very cold, very fast
529
How does brown fat help in the thermoregulation of neonates
Brown fat metabolism (2% of calves) which is highly vascular, metabolically active via aerobic metabolism. Blood shunted through brown fat to increase
530
Normal calves at birth have *
1) Transient hypoxia/ischemia = Birth asphyxia
2) Mild mixed respiratory and metabolic acidosis
3) Mild hypoxemia
4) Lactic acidosis
531
How does the pH change as the neonate develops form birth to 24 hours
Born with lactic acidosis (7.30) but then it increases to 7.43.
532
How does PCO2 change as the neonate develops form birth to 24 hours
They are born with mild hypoxemia and then decreases
533
How does PO2 change as the neonate develops form birth to 24 hours
they have a transient hypoxia and ischemia and that will resolve as the PO2 increases
534
when should a calf be standing after delivery
Within 1 hour
535
What should the body temp of a newborn calf be managed at
101-102
536
When should active suckling be in a claf
active suckling <2 hours
537
Normal newborn calfs should have
-uncomplicated vaginal delivery
-stands <1 hour
-Good mothering
-Body temp 101-102
-Active suckling <2 hours
-Attentive, responsive, active
538
Calves that are slow to adapt are
Lethargic, inactive- slower to time to stand
Delayed suckling- time to nurse is really important
539
What are the consequences of poor calf adaptation
-Decreased activity, lethargy (hypothermia)
-Delayed intake of colostrum, decreased energy/nutrient intake, decreased fluid volume, decreased Ig consumption
-Hypothermia, hypoglycemia, hypoxemia
-Decreased Ig uptake
-Decreased disease resistance
540
What factors lead to abnormal neonatal adaption
-Dystocia
-Premature birth
-Illness in dam
-In-utero problems
541
defined as delayed or ddifficult parturition
due to fetal-maternal size mismatch
-fetal malrepresentation
-maternal causes
Dystocia
542
Dystocia increases the degree of ___________
neonatal asphyxia and makes it harder for calves to adapt successfully
543
What are the effects of the calf of dystocia
-Prolonged hypoxia, ischemia, birth asphyxia
-Lactic acidosis
*Longer time to stand and to nurse
544
What acocunts for 60% of total calf loss
dystocia
545
calves with dystocia are _________ times more likely to die
4-5 times
and 3.8 times more likely to develop other diseases
546
What is normal dystocia levels, when managed correctly in beef operation
Cows about 1%
Heifers about 3%
547
calf death before, during, or within 48 hours of calving
stillborn
-estimated to be 7-8%
Stillborns: 78% are born dead, 21% are born alive
90% of stillborns alive at the start of calving
548
the most dramatic physiological changes in calves occur at
birth and death
549
perinatal morbidity due to ________ accounts for about half of all calf deaths through weaning and increase the risk of infectious disease
dystocia
550
What can manage and reduce the losses associated with dystocia
simple management and husbandry practices
1) Decrease the occurence of dystocia
2) Manage dystocia to decrease impact on calves and dams
3) *Identify abnormal calves and provide more care
551
What are the goals to decrease dystocia losses in cattle
1) Decrease the occurence of dystocia
2) Manage dystocia to decrease impact on calves and dams
3) *Identify abnormal calves and provide more care
552
What should you monitor in a neonatal calf
1) Delivery status
2) Behavior - time to stand, suckle reflex, activity and strength
3) Rectal temperature
4) Respiratory pattern
553
What should you do for neonatal assistance after calving
1) Stimulate and enhance respiration- assist in ventilation of the lungs (breathing) and stimulate by rubbing/drying calf
2) Maintain body temperature (thermoregulation)- provide supplemental heat
3) Increase blood volume and provide energy (administer colostrum)
554
How do you stimulate and enhance respiration of a neonatal calf
1) Place in sternal recumbency
2) Remove mucus from airway
3) Vigrorous drying/rubbing on chest
4) Provide positive pressure ventilation
5) Administration of oxygen
555
Calves that took more than 15 minutes to become sternal recumbence have a
84% predictive of nonvitality
556
What is the appropriate time line of a calf standing after birth
3min- head right
5min- sternal recumbence
20minutes- attempting to stand
60 minutes- standing
557
What should you do when doing positive pressure ventilation on a calf
make sure to hold off the esophagus or you will cause bloat
558
How do calves lose heat and how should you prevent heat loss
Evaporation - reduce by drying calves (also stimulates respiration)
Conduction- reduce by providing straw and bedding
Convection- reduce exposure to wind, dry calves
559
What is the most importance source of heat in the calf
physical activity
560
When should you provide a heat source to the calf
When their temp is 100 or less
supplemental heat sources
-Heaters, hot water bottles, warming hut
-colostrum- also provides energy for activity
-calf jacket
561
What are supplemental heat sources used to maintain body temp of neonates when their temperature is 100 or less
-Heaters, hot water bottles, warming hut
-colostrum- also provides energy for activity
-calf jacket
562
What are the affects of providing a calf with an infrared heater for 24 hours postpartum
Improvements in
-Rectal temp
-SO2 (%)
-Tidal volume
-Dynamic lung compliance
-Respiratory rate
563
How do you increase blood volume and provide energy to a calf
feed colostrum
564
How do neonatal calfs have acidosis
-Metabolic and respiratory
-circulatory volume contraction
-lactic acidosis- volume expansion, energy metabolism
-Respiratory acidosis from increased ventilation
565
Non-immunoglobulin components of colostrum
1) other immune-active agents
2) optimum source of standard nutritional elements
3) Concentrated energy, protein, vitamins, minerals
4) Fluid, warmth
566
ant procedure above and beyond natural mating used to attain or maintain a pregnancy
or
alter normal reproduction processes or function
Assisted reproduction
567
Assisted reproduction includes:
-Hormonal management
-Collection and preservation of gametes- sperm, eggs, embryos
-AI
-Embryo transfer
-IVG
-ICSI
-Cloning
568
stimulation of development and ovulation of multople follicles
usually accomplished by admin of gonadotropins
FSH (pFSH, oFSH, eFSH)
eCG (PMSG)
Primarily used in ruminants for embryo transfer, limited efficacy in horse
Superovulation
569
How many embryos might superovulation in cattle yield
10-15 embryos, of which 5 to 6 or more are suitable for transfer
570
procedure in which an embryo is removed from the uterus of one female (donor) and transferred into the uterus of a surrogate female (recipient)
common porcedure in large domestic animals to conserve and/or distribute valuable genetics
embryo transfer
571
Where does fertilization and early embryonic development take place
in the donor oviduct and uterus
*embryo is removed from the uterus of the donor (6 to 8 days after ovulation)
572
how are embryos collected
non-surgical, transcervical uterine lavage
catheter with flexible, inflatable cuff
flush: catheter passed through cervix, catheter pulled back against internal os
flushed infused into uterus by gravity flow
recovery through a filter
*Need to know how many fluids are provided
573
embryo filter
75um screen on bottom or on side or in center
fluid in filter cup is poured into petri dish and filter cup is rinsed
574
How are embryos identified
under microscopes (10X)
575
short-term storage of embryos
cooled- decrease metabolism, prolonges survival, 24 hour storage
576
long-term storage of embryos
frozen- liquid nitrogen, forever storage
577
in large animals, embryo transfer is almost always performed
through nonsurgical transfer
578
In cattle, the embryo needs to be placed _____________ ***
on the same side of the corpus luteum
579
In horses, does it matter where you place the embryo
no it is going to migrate regardless.
580
cryoprotectants used in embryo freezing
glycerol, ethylene glycol and then stored in liquid nitrogen
581
Most horses owners want what sex of horse
fillies
582
What is used to determine sex of the embryo
aspiration of blastomeres
biopsy of blastomeres
a small section of the trophoblast cells are removed
aspiration via needle
then PCR to detect male cells
remainder of embryo is frozen until transfer
583
how are oocytes collected
use of transvaginal ultrasound probe and needle aspirtion system
oocytes are capacitated sperm are placed togehter in petri dish
Fertilization and embryonic development proceeds
584
What species does the embryo not hatch out of
the horse
585
At what stage are embryos transfered
late morula to blastocytes into a synchronized patient
alternatives: freeze, biopsy, ship, autotransfer
586
separation of X and Y bearing spermatozoa via high speed flow cytometer
based on DNA content of sperm
X-bearing sperm have 3% more DNA than Y bearing sperm
Sex Selection of Spermatozoa
587
What animal breed associations do not allow registration of cloned animals
equine breed associated
588
How is cloning performed
by transplanting the nucleus of one cell into an oocyte from which the nucleus has been removed
589
Where do you want to harvest sperm from in a dead male
tail of epididymis and vas deferens
590
How to you harvest epididymal semen
the testes/ epidydyms/ vas are rinsed and placed in a plastic bag
They are then shipped cooled (not frozen) to the referral center
needs to be processed qithin 12 to 24 hours
the tail of the epididymis is dissected free from the testis
Spermatozoa are flushed from the epididymis and counted
Seminal plasma harvest from a male of known fertility with frozen semen may be added
freezing extender is added
sperm are frozen using standard techniques
20-100 straws are usually obtained (5-25 breeding doses)
591
How do you harvest oocytes from a dead animals
Ovaries removed, rinsed in saline and place in a plastic bag or sleeve
Ovaries are transported counter to counter to a referral center
Ovaries should be maintained at ambient temperature (not cooled or frozen)
Cooled semen from the stallion of choice should be sent separate from the ovaries
oocytes are collected by aspiration, scraping the follicular wall or slicing the ovary
recovered oocytes are cultured for 24-30 hours
Subsequent procedures: oocyte transfer, ICSI
592
