Exam 3 Flashcards
(218 cards)
1
Q
name for a drug that is used to control an infection
A
antimicrobial chemotherapy
2
Q
what are antibiotics
A
natural antimicrobials
3
Q
what are synthetic antibiotics
A
man made antimicrobials
4
Q
what are antibiotics that have been chemically modified
A
semisynthetic antimicrobials
5
Q
what are broad spectrum agents
A
they target a wide range of pathogenic bacteria
6
Q
what are narrow specrtum agents
A
they target a narrow subset of pathogens
7
Q
Who discovered the first antimicrobial
A
Alexander Fleming
8
Q
What are the main sources of useful antibiotics
A
streptomyces
bacillus
penicillum
cephalosporium
9
Q
which two bacteria give soil its smell
A
penicillium and cephalsporium
10
Q
What is the therapeutic index
A
toxic dose/ theraputic dose
11
Q
what type of number should the theraputic index be to be good
A
higher number is better
12
Q
what are the five main inhibitions of antibiotics
A
-cell wall formation inhibition
-cell membrane function inhibition
-DNA synthesis inhibition
-ribosome/protein synthesis inhibition
-metabolic pathway inhibition
13
Q
what drugs inhibit cell wall formation
A
penicilins and cephalosporins
14
Q
what drugs inhibit cell membrane function
A
polymixin
15
Q
what drugs inhibit dna synthesis
A
ciprofloxacin
16
Q
what drugs inhibit ribosomes/protein synthesis
A
tetracycline and erythromycin
17
Q
what drugs inhibit metabolic pathways
A
sulfa drugs and trimethoprim
18
Q
what do beta lactam antibotics inhibit
A
cell wall synthesis
19
Q
what are the 4 beta lactam antibiotics
A
penicillins
cephlosporins
monobactams
carbapenems
20
Q
what do all beta lactams have in their chemical structure
A
a beta lactam ring
21
Q
what are examples of drugs in the penicilin family
A
penicillin
amoxicillin
ampicillin
carbenicillin
22
Q
where do cephlasporin drugs come from
A
cephlalosporium acremonium
23
Q
what are the basic structures of cephlasporins
A
beta lactam ring
second base ring
2 R groups (3&7)
24
Q
what are metabolic analogs
A
molecules that look the same as what goes into the active site of an enzyme
25
What is the metabolic analog for PABA
sulfa drugs
26
what is nescissary for the synthesis of folic acids
PABA
27
What is folic acid required for
the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines
28
what do protein synthesis inhibitors affect in that process
translation
29
what are the major classes of protein synthesis inhibitors
chloramphenicol
macrolides
lincosamides
aminoglycosides
tetracyclines
30
what type of drug is tetracycline
a semisynthetic drug that comes from a natural antibiotic made by streptomyces
31
what kind of spectrum is tetracycline
broad spectrum and bacteriostatic
32
what are 2 examples of macrolides
eryrthromycin and azithromycin
33
what do macrolides bind to
ribosomes
34
what kind of antibiotic are macrolides
semisynthetic and bactericidal. comes from streptomyces erythraues
35
What class of drugs are relatively new
fluoroquinolones
36
what are examples of flouroquinolones
ciproflaxin and nalidixic acid
37
what type of drug are flouroqunolones
synthetic and broad spectrum
38
what process does flouroqunolones inhibit
DNA replication
39
what do flouroqunolones bind to
DNA gyrase
40
what are two newer classes of antibiotics
synercid and zyvox
41
what type of drugs are synercid and zyvox
narrow spectrum drugs that are used against gram positive pathogens
42
what is a large factor of antibiotic resistance
inappropriate perscriptions and inapropriate use
43
bacteria ____ resistant, humans_____ resistant
are, are not
44
What does it mean that 70% antibiotics were for non therapeutic use
not to treat illnesses but rather to "fatten up" animals
45
what other factors can contribute to antibiotic resistance
ecological interactions
46
what is the one health concept
the health of the people is connected to the health of animals and the environment
47
how frequent is disease spread from humans to animals
6 out of every 10
48
what is the 'arms race' of antibiotic resistance
-develop new antibiotic
-microbe target develops resistance to it
-different modification of the antibitoic
-microbe grows resistance to that
-introduce new class of antibiotic
49
what are some mechanisms of antibicrobial resistance
-efflux pump
-inactive enzyme
-blocked penetration
-target modification
50
what is beta lactam use
an antibiotic
51
what is a beta lactamase inhibitor
produced by humans to fight product produced by bacteria to fight antibiotic
52
what is beta lactamase
produced by bacteria to fight antibiotic
53
what are some side effects to these drugs
-tissue toxicity
-allergic rxns
-disruption of normal flora
54
what does tissue toxicity mean
-it affects the kidneys, liver, heart, skin, nerves, teeth, and bones
55
what happens with an allergic reaction to these drugs
-sensitized on first contact (no rxn)
-due to a metabolic byproduct
56
what is disruption of the normal flora
it disrupts the microbial ecology within our bodies which can cause diarrehea
57
what is a super infection
a secondary infection that is caused by the destruction of normal microflora
58
what is an example of a superinfection
a yeast infection that was caused by the overuse of broad spectrum antibiotics
59
how to pick the right antimicrobial
-identification of the agent
-determining the susceptibility of the agent
60
what is a genome
the sum of the genetic material of the cell
61
what is the diffetence in the genome in cells vs viruses
cells- DNA
viruses- DNA/RNA
62
what are chromosomes
DNA with protein
63
What is the chromosome subdivided into
genes
64
what are genes
the fundamental unit of heredity that is responsible for a given trait
65
what are the 3 categories of genes
-code for proteins (structural)
-code for RNA
-code for gene expression (regulatory)
66
How many genes does the smallest virus have
4-5 genes
67
what is the structure of the nucleotides of RNA
phosphate group
ribose
Nitrogen base group
68
what is the structure of nucleotides of DNA
phosphate
deoxyribose
nitrogenous base
69
when a single DNA strand is polymerized, what ends match
3' to 5'
70
how are 2 strands of a DNA molecule arranged
antiparallel
71
which end of the DNA strand is the growing end
3' end
72
what are the purines
adenine and guanine
73
what are the pyrimidines
cytosine and thymine (uracil)
74
the amount of ____ = amount of thymine
the amount of ____= amount of cytosine
adenine
guanine
75
what is the backbone of DNA made up of
sugar (deoxyribose)
76
what is the central dogma of replication
DNA (transcription) --> RNA (translation)--> protein
77
what is genotype
an organisms full collection of genes
78
what is the pheonotype
the observable traits or charecteristics that result from those genes
79
what is the enzyme that seperates the DNA strand
DNA polymerase
80
what is semiconservative replication
where the DNA replication uses one parent strand of DNA
81
what is the first step in the replication of the bacterial chromosome
ribosome binds and initiates the synthesis
82
what is the second step in the replication of the bacterial chromosome
replication forks continue syntehsis in the opposite direction
83
what is the third step in the replication of the bacterial chromosome
replication forks hit the terminus of the replication and collide which releases two chromosome copies
84
DNA synthesis takes place ___ and in ___ directions
simultaneously
opposite
85
when does DNA replication at a single replication fork begin
when a DNA molecule unwinds to provide two single stranded templates
86
What happens on the lower template strand of DNA synthesis
5'---> 3' is continous and is the same as the unwinding
87
what happens on the upper template strand of DNA
Begins at hte fork and proceeds in the direction opposite that of the unwinding so it runs out of template quickly
88
When does synthesis restart for the upper strand
starts again at the fork and proceeding until it runs out of template
89
because the upper strand is disconinious what foes this create
okazaki fragments
90
which strnad grows to the replication fork
leading
91
why must the lagging strand be repliacted in short pieces
DNA polymerase can synthesise in one direction
92
which strnad during replication has a 5' end to the replication fork
the lagging stand
93
what does DNA polymerase I do
removes RNA primers and fills in the correct DNA nucleotides at open sites
94
what are the unjoined ends if the nucleotides (nick) connected by
Ligase
95
when does proofreading begin
time of nucleotide insertion
96
Which enzyme proofreads
DNA polymerase III
97
Replication ____ DNA language and Transcription/Translation ____ DNA language
Inherits
applies
98
Where does RNA polymerase bind to initiate transcription
promoter region
99
how many proteins does one gene code for
one protein
100
what strand is being transcribed
template strand
101
First step in DNA transcription
promoter region and leader sequence for guiding starts transcription, ends with terminal sequence
102
Second step in DNA transcription
DNA unwound at promoter by RNA polymerase, template strand supplies code to be transcribed by RNA polymerase
103
Third step in DNA transcription
RNA polymerase adds complimentary bases to the DNA template, mRNA reads 5'-3'
104
fourth step in DNA transcription
polymerase stops at termination site and mRNA is released to be translated, DNA is rewound
105
what type of cells do not have introns
prokaryotes
106
What is the genetic code represented by
codon on mRNA that codes for amino acids
107
why is the code redundant
to minimize errors/mutations
108
which RNA has the ANTIcodon
tRNA
109
what is another word for growth of a DNA strand
Polymerization
110
What is it called when the DNA is bound tight to fit into the nucleoid region of the cell
supercoiling
111
Can multiple cells have the same genotype but different phenotypes
yes because the environmental influence on the genotype can change the phenotype
112
How is information processed by a Prokaryote
Gene A --> Coding region A --> Protein
113
Information Processing in Eukaryotes
Gene--> DNA w/ Intron or Extron --> primary RNA transcription --> Intron excised --> mature mRNA --> transport to the cytoplasm --> translation--> protein
114
A theta structure is formed during which process
replication
115
What is the bigger subunit of the ribosome
50S
116
What is the smaller subunit of the ribosome
30S
117
What is elongation during translation
When the correct tRNA binds to the mRNA and the amino acid is connected by a peptide bond. This is catalyzed by the ribsome. After the amino acid is bonded, the tRNA that is discharged is released.
118
What are the 3 levels which enzymes can be regulated
transcription (no mRNA)
translation (no enzyme)
activity (no product)
119
what step is enzymatic expression regulated at
transcription
120
what is an operon
a cluster of genes that expression is controlled by a single operator
121
what is an operator
a specific region of DNA at the inital end of a gene or operon where a repressor protein can bind to and block mRNA synthesis
122
what is a repressor protein
a regulatory protein that binds to specific sites on the DNA strand and blocks transcription
123
what is the order of the gene organization in prokaryotes
regulatory genes --> promoter --> operator --> structural genes
124
what is in an operon
promotor, operatorm and structural genes
125
what is a DNA binding protein
a repressor protein
126
what does the repressor protein do when binding DNA
holds the protein dimer together
127
where does the DNA binding domain fit into
major grove along the sugar phosphate backbone
128
how many methods of gene regulation are there
3
enzyme induction
enzyme repression
catabolic repression
129
what is enzyme induction
- noramlly "off" (not transcribing
-gene expressed when specific molecule present
-molecule binds to repressor, takes it off, and allows for transcription
130
what is enzyme repression
- gene is normally "turned on"
-when repressor is inactive, the mRNA can transcribe
-operator is de-repressed, genes are expressed
-corepressor prevents transcription
131
what does a corepressor do
prevents transcription by repressing the operon
132
what is catabolic repression
- the act of "chosing" a preffered energy source by repressing the enzyme that is not wanted
133
what does catabolic expression allow for
adaptation to preferred carbon/energy source by prioritizing specific pathways
134
what is an example of enzyme induction
the lac operon with lactose
135
what is the inducer for the lac repressor
allolactose
136
enzyme repression is a _____ process
anabolic
137
what is an example of enzyme reperession
arginine operon
138
what is the corepressor on the Arg repressor
arginine
139
what is catabolic repression also known as
diauxic growth
140
what is a mutation
permanent heritable changes in the genetic information of a cell
141
what are point mutations
-substitution
-insertion
-deletion
142
what are indels
large mutations that insirt or delete multiple bases
143
What is a nonsense mutation
the coding of a stop protein
144
what is a missense mutation
the coding of an incorrect protein/faulty protein
145
what is a silent mutation
one of the bases is changed but still codes for the correct protein
146
what do insertions or deletions result in
frame shifts
147
what is spontaneous causation of mutations
the replication mistake due to background effects or incorrect coding
148
what is induced causation of mutation
exposure to mutagens such as radiation or chemicals
149
what is a chemical mutant example
the analog 5-Bromauracil for thymine
150
what is the chemical mutant intercalating agent do
puts atypical spacing between base pairs that can result in frame shifts
151
what type of mutation is more likely to lead to an entire inactive/ unusable protein
nonsense mutations
152
What are the 3 types or horizontal gene transfer
-conjugation
-transformation
-transduction
153
what is conjugation
the direct plasmid transfer between bacteria
154
what is transformation
the uptake of extracellular DNA
--> cell lyses and releases DNA into the enviroment which the new bacterial cell picks it up
155
what is transduction
the transfer of DNA from 1 cell to another by a virus (bacteriophages)
156
What is catabolism
when large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules that releases energy
157
what is anabolism
when small molecules are assembled into bigger ones (uses energy)
158
What is the flow of catabolism in a cell
sources of energy -->
catabolism releases the stored energy -->
The end products with reduced energy are CO2 and H2O
159
What is the flow of anabolism in a cell
simple building blocks (amino acids and sugars) ->
anabolism (req energy)-->
macromolecules (sources of energy
160
What is the chemical equation for the metabolism of glucose
C6H12O6 +6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O
161
where does the energy come from in the breakdown of glucose
the covalent bonds
162
what is a covalent bond
the sharing of electrons
163
do electrons travel alone
no, they travel with a proton
164
what yields energy
the movement of an electron
165
where the electron moves determines what
how much energy is released and how quickly
166
What are electron carriers used for
To move electrons around for cellular processes
167
What are the 2 common hydrogen ion carrying intermediates
NAD and FAD
168
What is ATP and what is it used for
Adenosine triphosphate and its used to move energy around
169
What is phosphorolation
When ADP adds a phosphate and becomes ATP by solar or chemical energy
170
What is dephosphorolation
When ATP becomes ADP + P when used for cellular work (anabolism)
171
What is another word for anabolism
Biosynthesis
172
What does an enzyme do to activation energy
It decreases activation energy so the reaction can be conducted quicker
173
What do most enzymes need to function
A coenzyme or a cofactor
174
What is a coenzyme
It is an organic molecule
175
What is a cofactor
An inorganic molecule such as a metal
176
What is an app enzyme
The protein part of the enzyme
177
What is a holoenzyme
The complete enzyme (cofactor/enzyme is bonded to the enzymes active site
178
What is a redox reaction
When an enzymatic reduction of NAD uses a substrate as an electron donor
179
What are the 2 methods of direct control of enzymatic activity
Competitive inhibition and allosteric inhibition
180
What is competitive inhibition
The non-substrate “competitor” molecule that binds and blocks the active site
181
What is the allosteric enzyme
One that contained both an active and regulatory site where an effector molecule binds
182
What is allosteric inhibition
An enzyme product (effector) that binds to the enzyme itself to block its activity
183
Which of these is the active site changed on the enzyme
Allosteric inhibition
184
What does the feedback inhibition look like
Regulatory molecule foes into regulatory site so it inhibits the substrate from going in. Or the substrate is not inhibited and binds to active site which makes an intermediate substrate then produces the end product
185
Is there a difference in anaerobic respiration and fermentation
Yes there is.
186
As glucose is being oxidized what happens
It releases CO2 in TCA cycle, energy goes into atp, and glucose is the e- donor in this
187
What is put into glycolysis
Glucose which is a 6 carbon molecule
188
What comes out of glycolysis
4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvic acidsthat come from glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (3 C each)
189
What goes into TCA
2 molecules of pyruvic acid
190
What is pyruvic acid converted To in the TCA cycle
Acetyl co A (releases 2 co2)
191
What comes out of the TCA cycle
4 co2, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 8NADH
192
Where does the TCA cycle occur
In the cytoplasm of prokaryotes
193
What goes into the ETC
NADH
194
What comes out of the ETC
34 ATP and 6 H2O
195
Where does the ECT occur
Cell membrane of the mitochondria
196
What cellular process does the ETC carry out
Respiration
197
What is the proton motive force
The protons outside of the bacterial membrane that helps with the ETC
198
What does the proton motive force help with
Producing ATP
199
What pathways are ATP produces
ETC
Glycolysis
Krebs
200
What is glycolysis also known as
the Embden Meyerhof Parnas pathway (EMP)
201
how many times does the TCA cycle have to turn to get all the carbon out
twice
202
Where does the ECT occur in prokaryotes, eukaryotes
pro-cell membrane
eu-mitochondria
203
what is aerobic respiration also called
oxidative phosphorylation
204
what pathway produce co2
krebs
205
which of the two respiration cycles produces the least amount of atp
anaerobic
206
is oxygen the only final electron receptor
no, it can be another inorganic molecule for anaerobic respiration
207
aerobic respiration flow
organic compound
--> co2
--> biosynthesis
--> o2
--> atp
208
anaerobic respiration
organic compound
--> CO2
_biosynthesis
--> ATP
_No3 So4 2-, organic electron receptors
209
what do the most obligate anaerobes use
NADH+ that is generated in the Krebs cycle to reduce other compounds
210
what is fermentation not
fermentation is not anaerobic respiration
211
what does fermentation recycle
NADH
212
what is anabolism also called
biosynthesis
213
what are not producs of glycolysis
Glucose and NAD
214
what are more reduced products
ethanol and fermented producdts
215
what processes can E.coli do
an/aerobic respiration and fermentation
216
what processes can a human cell carry out
aerobic respiration and fermentation
217
what process uses the ETC
an/aerobic respiration
218
