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exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

belowground and function

A

root system-takes in water and nutrients from soil

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2
Q

aboveground and function

A

shoot system, harvests light and CO2, produce sugars

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3
Q

belowground and aboveground plants systems form what

A

the plant body

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4
Q

key functions of the root system -5

A

-anchor plant to the soil
-absorb ions and water from soil
-conduct water and ions to the shoot system
-obtain energy from the sugar in the shoot system
-store material produced in the shoot system for later use

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5
Q

root system diversity can be analyzed on three levels what are they

A

morphological diversity-among species
phenotypic plasticity- in response to environment- stress
modified roots- for unusual functions

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6
Q

2 types of appearances of roots in morphological diversity

A

tap roots; single, long, dominant, grows straight.
Fibrous roots; smaller roots in all directions

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7
Q

lifespan of roots in morphological diversity

A

perennial; live for many years
annual; die off early

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8
Q

roots stop ____ or die back in areas ___ resources in phenotypic plasticity

A

growing, lacking

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9
Q

in phenotypic plasticity identical plants may

A

have different root systems in diffferent environments

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10
Q

examples of modified roots

A

come above surface of the soil- storage of carbs
pneumatophores- function in gas exchange
Biennial plants- carrots and beets

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11
Q

in a plant body, the shoot system consists of one or more

A

stem and leaf

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12
Q

stem

A

vertical aboveground structure
-has nodes
and internodes

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13
Q

leaf

A

appendage that projects from stem laterally on stalk- petiole

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14
Q

apical and axillary bud may develop into

A

flowers

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15
Q

axillary (or lateral) buds

A

nodes just above site of leaf attachment
-may grow into a branch-a lateral extension of root system

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16
Q

apical buds

A

tip of each stem and branch

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17
Q

modified stems examples

A

cactus, stem is converted into a water storage organ
strawberry stolons produce new individuals above ground
rhizomes- below ground, store carbohydrates
thornd- for protection

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18
Q

leaf structure

A

photosynthesis occurs in leaves, large surface area. has 2 main structures- expanded blade, stem called petiole

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19
Q

leaves are also diverse and can be analyzed on what 3 levels

A

morphological, phenotypic, and modified leaves

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20
Q

type of leaf blades-4

A

simple leaf- one petiole and one leaf blade
compound leaf- one petiole and one blade divided into many leaflets
doubly compound leaf- one petiole and many blades divided into many leaflets
needle like leaf- very hot or very cold climates

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21
Q

arrangement of leaves

A

alternate- self explanatory
opposite- self explanatory
whorled- meet in the center but have leaves around the stem
rosette- weed on the ground- center point where every leaf extends from

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22
Q

modified leaves and examples - 6

A

bulbs- onion leaves store food
succulents- aloe vera store water
floral mimics- red poinsettia leaves attract pollinators
traps- venus fly trap
tendrils- pea tendrils aid in climbing

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23
Q

chloroplasts

A

site of photosynthesis

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24
Q

vacuoles

A

have cell sap, store water, waste and nutrients

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25
Q

primary cell wall and secondary

A

cellulose
lignin, cellulose, etc.

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26
Q

cytoplasm of adjacent plant cells are connected by

A

plasmodesmata

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27
Q

simple tissues

A

skin tissue- consists of a single cell type

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28
Q

complex tissue

A

contain several type of cells

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29
Q

three tissues system are found in plants

A

dermal tissue system
ground tissue system
vascular tissue system

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30
Q

dermal tissue systems

A

outermost tissue, complex tissue. consists of epidermal cells, guard cells, trichomes, and root hairs.

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31
Q

dermal tissue functions in shoots and roots

A

shoots; protection, gas exchange
roots; protection; absorption of water and nutrients

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32
Q
  1. protection: cuticle
  2. regulation of water loss and gas exchange:___
  3. other functions:___
A

1- waxy layer on surface of leaves and stems, minimize water loss, protection from viruses, bacteria, and fungal spores
2- stomata
3-trichomes- prevent water loss, coolness, secrete toxins, trap and digest insects

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33
Q

ground tissue systems

A

forms plants body, SIMPLE tissue

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34
Q

ground tissue consist of 3 distinct tissues

A

parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma

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35
Q

function of ground tissue systems

A

synthesis and storage of sugars(other carbs) - support and protection

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36
Q

parenchyma

A

most abundant, have thin celled walls. many are totipotent

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37
Q

totipotent

A

capacity to divide and develop into complete plant (stem cells)

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38
Q

parenchyma in leaves and in roots

A

in leaves- photosynthesis and gas exchange
in roots- storage of carbohydrates

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39
Q

collenchyma

A

have unevenly thickened cell walls, found under epidermis- outside of vascular tissues
-provide flexible structural support to actively growing up parts of the plant

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40
Q

sclerenchyma

A

primary cell wall: cellulose.
secondary cell wall; thick/rigid, made of lignin and cellulose.
fibers; elongated
sclereids; short, variable shape

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41
Q

vascular tissue system consists of 2 complex tissues, what does the xylem do

A

xylem; conducts water and dissolved nutrients from the root system to the shoot system

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42
Q

xylem structure in vascular tissue system and 2 types of water conducting cells

A

water conducting cells, parenchyma cells, and fibers. 2 types - tracheids; long tapered, have pits (softwood) Vessel elements; short, have perforations (hard wood)

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43
Q

phloem structure

A

sieve- tube elements; lack nuclei and are directly connected to adjacent companion cells by plasmodesmata

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44
Q

meristems

A

undifferentiated-no specialized structure or function-cells that retain ability for mitosis

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45
Q

apical meristems

A

tips of each root and shoot, responsible for primary growth.

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46
Q

three distinct primary (plant grows in length) apical meristems

A
  1. protoderm- dermal tissue system
  2. ground meristem- ground tissue system
  3. procambium- vascular tissue system
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47
Q

secondary growth __ shoots and roots

A

widens

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48
Q

secondary growth

A

increases width of roots and shoots, provides increased structural support

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49
Q

secondary growth occurs due to __ (not ___)

A

cambium, apical meristems

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50
Q

cambium

A

vascular cambium and cork cambium

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51
Q

secondary xylem

A

WOOD

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52
Q

secondary phloem+primary phloem+cork cambium+ cork cells=

A

BARK

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53
Q

gas exchange in bark occurs through small opening called ___

A

Lenticels

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54
Q

dark colored inner xylem

A

heartwood

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55
Q

light colored, outer xylem

A

sapwood

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56
Q

older, innermost secondary xylem accumulates

A

resins and gums

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57
Q

in areas with seasonality, vascular cambium stops growing during the dry or cold season. this results in

A

annual tree rings

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58
Q

most adult animals have 4 tissue types

A

1) Nervous tissue
(2) Muscle tissue
(3) Epithelial tissue
(4) Connective tissue

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59
Q

tissue

A

group of similar cells that work together as a unit to perform the same function

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60
Q

nervous tissue transmit electrical signals
action potentials

A

changes
in permeability of plasma
membrane

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61
Q

nervous tissue has dendrites which

A

transmit
electrical signals from adjacent
cells to neurons

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62
Q

axons in nervous tissue

A

transmit electrical
signals from neurons
to other cells

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63
Q

pressure potential

A

tendency of water to move in response to pressure

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64
Q

turgor pressure

A

incoming water causes plant cell to swell, plasma membrane pushes against cell wall

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65
Q

wall pressure

A

force exerted when rigid cell wall resists expansions of cell volume

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66
Q

muscle tissue- long cells, voluntary movement are and function in what

A

skeletal muscle, attaches to bone body movement

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67
Q

muscle tissue- branched cells, involuntary movement are and function in what

A

cardiac muscle, heart walls, pump blood

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68
Q

muscle tissue- tapered cells, involuntary movement are and function in what

A

smooth muscle, digestive tract, blood vessels

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69
Q

epithelial tissue

A

Cover the outside of the body, line surfaces of organs, and form glands

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70
Q

organ

A

structure that serves a specialized function and
consists of several tissues

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71
Q

gland

A

group of cells that secrete specific molecules

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72
Q

Epithelial tissues have polarity, apical side and basolateral side what is the difference

A

apical side; faces away from other tissues
basolateral; faces the animal’s interior

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73
Q

simple epithelia vs stratified

A

simple- single layer of cells, diffusion of gases, water, nutrients
stratified- multiple layer of cells, body protection

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74
Q

extracellular fibers

A

collagen, reticular fibers, and elastin

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75
Q

matrix is made up of what

A

extracellular fibers and other materials

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76
Q

connective tissue

A

cells loosely arranged in a liquid/jelly-like/solid matrix

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77
Q

dense vs loose connective tissue

A

dense; fibrous extracellular matrix, holds tissue together tightly
loose; soft extracellular matrix

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78
Q

supporting vs fluid connective tissue

A

supporting; firm extracellular matrix, functions in structural support and protection.
fluid; liquid extracellular matrix, functions in transport

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79
Q

homeostasis

A

Stability in chemical and physical conditions within an
organism’s cells, tissues, and organs

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80
Q

2 different approaches to maintaining homeostasis- regulate and conform

A

regulate; relatively constant internal conditions even when
the environment fluctuates; Humans at 37C
conform; internal conditions fluctuate with external
environment, Antarctic rock cod with sea water.

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81
Q

homeostatic system based on 3 general components

A
  1. sensor
  2. integrator
  3. effector
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82
Q

sensor

A

senses external or internal environment
e.g.: Temperature receptors in the skin

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83
Q

integrator

A

evaluates incoming sensory information,
compares it to set point, determines a response
e.g.: Hypothalamus compares the set point to the current
body temperature

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84
Q

effector

A

helps restore internal condition being monitored
* e.g.: Shivering to generate warmth or fluffing of fur to
insulate and retain heat

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85
Q

in Mammals, a Homeostatic System Regulates
Body Temperature Through

A

negative feedback

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86
Q

thermoregulation

A
  1. conduction
  2. convention
  3. radiation
  4. evaporation
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87
Q

thermoregulatory strategies- is an animals body temp held constant?

A

homeotherms; keep their body temp constant
poikilotherms; body temp changes based on environment

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88
Q

thermoregulation varies widely

A

endotherm and ectotherm

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89
Q

endotherm

A

produces adequate heat to warm its own tissue

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90
Q

ectotherm

A

relies on heat gained from the environment

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91
Q

honeybees use what to kill predators

A

heat

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92
Q

topor- thermoregulatory strategy

A

temporary drop in body temp

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93
Q

hibernation- thermoregulatory strategy

A

prolonged drop in body temp

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94
Q

Some animal structures conserve heat with
countercurrent heat which are

A

Arteries are wrapped with several small veins

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95
Q

Heat flows freely from warm arteries to cool veins, thus retaining heat

A

Countercurrent exchangers are efficient—maintain gradient between two fluids along their entire length

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96
Q

water potential

A

Potential energy of water in particular
environment, compared with potential energy of pure
water at atmospheric pressure and room temperature

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97
Q

in water potential net movement of water occurs as direct result of

A

differences in water potential from roots to shoots

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98
Q

water potential is the sum of which 2 factors

A

solute potential and pressure potential

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99
Q

solute potential

A

Tendency for water to move by osmosis in response to differences in solute concentrations.

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100
Q

Solutions with high concentrations of solutes have ___ solute potentials

A

low

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101
Q

hypertonic condition

A

h2o moves out, flaccid

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102
Q

vascular tissue system consists of 2 complex tissues, what does the phloem do

A

phloem; conducts sugars, amino acids, hormones, and other substances from roots to shoots and from shoots to roots

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103
Q

hypotonic solution

A

h2o moves in, turgid

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104
Q

salt adapted

A

species accumulate solutes in root cells,
lowering their solute potential

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105
Q

dry adapted

A

species cope by tolerating low solute
potentials.

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106
Q

shrubs

A

continue to acquire water and grow because
the solute potential of their leaves remains below the
potential of soil water

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107
Q

wilting

A

Occurs When Water Loss Leads to Loss
of Turgor Pressure

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108
Q

sink in bulk flow

A

tissue where sugar exits phloem
* developing leaves, flowers, seeds,
fruits, storage cells in roots

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109
Q

source in bulk flow

A

tissue where sugar enters phloem
* Mature leaves and stems

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110
Q

what is the order of bulk flow

A

from source to sink

111
Q

Sources supply to Sinks directionally how

A

same side, same end

112
Q

pressure flow hypothesis
-High turgor pressure near
-Low turgor pressure near

A

source
sink

113
Q

phloem loading in pressure flow hypothesis

A

Water in phloem sap:
moves down this
pressure gradient (passively)
- sugars carried by active transport- passively

114
Q

pressure flow hypothesis

A

High Turgor Pressure
Near Sources Causes Phloem Sap to Flow to Sinks

115
Q

Active transport involves pumps (membrane proteins) that

A

change shape when they bind ATP.

116
Q

cotransporters

A

Electrochemical gradients established by pumps are used to transport other molecules or ions by two types of membrane proteins

117
Q

symporters

A

transport solutes against concentration
gradient- same/ drag

118
Q

antiporters

A

actively transported solute moves in the
opposite direction. This is secondary active transport

119
Q

active transport

A

transport of molecules across membrane
against their electrochemical gradient with use of ATP

120
Q

in phloem loading proton pumps in membranes of companion cells
create

A

a strong electrochemical gradient that favors a
flow of protons into companion cells

121
Q

A symporter in the membranes of companion cells
uses the

A

proton gradient to bring sucrose into
companion cells from the source cells

122
Q

how does phloem unloading occur in young growing leaves

A

simple diffusion, sucrose is rapidly used up in cells of these leaves

123
Q

how does phloem unloading occur in root cells

A

large vacuole that stores sucrose, surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast

124
Q

Tonoplast (membrane in root cells) contains 2 types of protein pumps that

A

accumulate sucrose in vacuole

125
Q

Proton–sucrose antiporter

A

moves sucrose into
vacuole against its concentration gradient

126
Q

electrolyte

A

a compound that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water e.g., NaC

127
Q

diffusion

A

movement of uncharged substances down their concentration gradients

128
Q

osmosis

A

movement of water down its concentration
gradient across a semipermeable membrane

129
Q

osmolarity

A

concentration of solutes in solution (units: Osmoles/liter)

130
Q

osmotic stress

A
  • concentration of dissolved substances in a cell or tissue is
    abnormal
  • water and solute concentrations are different from their set
    points
131
Q

osmoregulators

A

actively regulate their internal water and
electrolyte, independent of the surrounding environment e.g.,
humans

132
Q

osmoconformers

A

organisms that keep their internal fluids
similar to their ambient conditions e.g., sponges and jellyfish

133
Q

Marine bony fishes and cartilaginous fishes experience severe osmotic stress, what are the 2 strategies for living in the ocean

A

osmoregulation and osmoconformation

134
Q

osmoregulation in marine animals

A

Tendency for water loss
+ uptake salts
* Fish drink lots of seawater
* Urinate little
* Spend a lot of energy
for salt balance

135
Q

osmoconformation in marine animals

A
  • Isosmotic with seawater,
    resulting in little water loss.
  • High conc. of urea in blood.
  • Spend a lot of energy
    to prevent toxic effects of
    high urea concentrations
136
Q

salt excretion in osmoregulators and osmoconformers

A

regulators- 400mmol/L- through gills, chloride cells
conformers- 600mmol/L - through rectal glands- shark

137
Q

How do freshwater fishes maintain water and electrolyte balance

A
  • Tendency to lose salt
    across their gill epithelium by diffusion.
  • Tendency to absorb water.
  • Lots of dilute urine.
  • Drink little water.
  • Active transport needed
    to reabsorb salts at gills
138
Q

anadromous fish

A

live in salt water and
migrate to freshwater water
to breed. e.g., bass, salmon

139
Q

catadromous fish

A

live in freshwater water and
migrate to salt water to breed.
e.g., American eel

140
Q

in salt water, ____ is on basolateral side of the chloride cell

A

cotransporter

141
Q

in freshwater, contransporter is on __ side of the chloride cell

A

apical

142
Q

outer region of the kidney

A

cortex

143
Q

renal artery brings ___ with nitrogenous wastes

A

blood

144
Q

renal vein carries ____ ____ away

A

cleaned blood

145
Q

inner region of the kidney

A

medulla

146
Q

nephron is the what for the kidney

A

ultimate filtration unit

147
Q

5 parts of the nephron

A

renal corpuscle, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collecting duct

148
Q

renal corpuscle

A

filters blood, forming a filtrate (ions, water, nutrients, and wastes)

149
Q

proximal tubule

A

epithelial cells reabsorb nutrients, ions,
and water from filtrate into blood

150
Q

loop of henle

A

absorbs water

151
Q

distal tubule

A

reabsorbs ions, water, toxins, drugs

152
Q

collecting duct

A

urea moves into blood, water reabsorption

153
Q

Urine formation begins in renal corpuscle which is made up of

A

glomerulus and bowmans capsule

154
Q

glomerulus

A

cluster of capillaries that bring
blood to the nephron from the renal artery

155
Q

bowmans capsule

A

the region of the nephron that surrounds the glomerulus

156
Q

glomerular capillaries have what for filtration

A

large pores

157
Q

tubular reabsorption and its 2 modes

A

Proximal Convoluted Tubule
)Transcellular
2)Paracellular

158
Q

microvilli in active transport

A

greatly increase epithelial surface area

159
Q

Proximal tubule functions in ____ ______of
selected molecules out of the filtrate.

A

active transport

160
Q

Na+-K+ ATPase
pump primary active
requires energy

A

antiport

161
Q

Ion and Water Movement Is Driven by a
Concentration Gradient in the

A

interstitial fluid

162
Q

descending limb in the loop of henle

A

highly permeable
to water but almost completely
impermeable to solutes

163
Q

ascending limb in the loop of henle

A

highly permeable
salts (Na+ and Cl-) to moderately
permeable to urea, and almost
completely impermeable to water

164
Q

loop of henle remains what

A

osmotic gradient

165
Q

As fluid flows down
descending limb, fluid inside
loop ___ water to the tissue
surrounding nephron.
This movement of water is
passive, …

A

loses, down its osmotic
gradient.

166
Q

thin ascending limb

A

fluid inside nephron loses Na and Cl

167
Q

how do the ions move in the thin ascending limb

A

passively along electrochemical gradients

168
Q

thick ascending limb

A

Near the cortex,
osmolarity of
surrounding interstitial
fluid is low

169
Q

how are ions transported in thick ascending limb

A

Na+ and Cl-
are actively transported
out of nephron in the
thick ascending limb

170
Q

vasa recta

A

removes water and solutes that leave
the Loop of Henle

171
Q

what is the structure of the vasa recta

A

vessels
that runs along the loop

172
Q

Vasa recta joins up with small veins at
the top of the medulla and ultimately
form the

A

renal vein

173
Q

distal tubule fluid and what does it contain

A

Fluid is hypoosmotic
* contains urea and other waste products

174
Q

collecting duct- 3 characteristics

A

Fluid is called urine
* dilute when individual is
well hydrated
* concentrated when the
individual is dehydrated

175
Q

Changes in the distal tubule and collecting duct are
controlled by

A

hormones

176
Q

what is produced by adrenal glands (salt changes-Na levels are low)

A

aldosterone

177
Q

what does aldosterone lead to

A

activation of sodium potassium pumps

178
Q

If an individual is dehydrated, the brain releases

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

179
Q

ADH has 2 important effects on epithelial cells in the
collecting duct

A

insertion of aquaporins and increases permeability to urea

180
Q

insertion of aquaporins

A

into the apical membrane and
large amounts of water are reabsorbed

181
Q

increases permeability to urea

A

favoring water reabsorption

182
Q

Many aquaporins, water is
conserved, and urine is
____ relative to blood

A

hyperosmotic

183
Q

Few aquaporins, water is impermeable, and urine is___ relative to blood

A

hypoosmotic

184
Q

nerve net

A

diffuse arrangement of cells e.g., cnidarians (jellyfishes,
hydra, and anemones) and ctenophores (comb jellies

185
Q

central nervous system

A

large numbers of neurons
aggregated into clusters called ganglia e.g., brain and spinal cord in
humans

186
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

all neurons and other
components of nervous system outside the CNS e.g., cranial nerves
(involved in sense perception) and spinal nerves in humans.

187
Q

3 types of neurons

A
  1. sensory neurons
  2. interneurons
  3. motor neurons
188
Q

sensory neurons

A

carry information to CNS and from sensory cells.
* skin, eyes, ears, and nose to respond to light, sound, touch.
* inside the body, monitor conditions for homeostasis, such as blood pH and oxygen levels

189
Q

interneurons

A

pass signals from one neuron to another

190
Q

motor neurons

A

send signals from CNS to effector cells in
glands or muscles.

191
Q

Motor neurons and sensory neurons are bundled together into
long strands called

A

nerves

192
Q

cell body (soma) of a neuron

A

includes the nucleus

192
Q

an involuntary response to an
environmental stimulus

A

reflex action

193
Q

dendrites in a neuron

A

highly branched
short projects

194
Q

axons in a neuron

A

one or more
relatively long projections

195
Q

____receive signals from axons of other neurons, and a neuron’s
___ sends signals to the dendrites and cell bodies of other neurons

A

dendrites, axon

196
Q

rules for ion movement- membrane potential- 3

A
  1. From HIGHER to LOWER
    concentration.
  2. Away from LIKE charge, towards
    OPPOSITE charge.
  3. Depends on permeability of
    membrane, requires special proteins
    like pumps, carriers, channels, etc.
197
Q

membrane potential

A

refer to a separation of charge
immediately adjacent to the plasma membrane

198
Q

Ions move across membranes in response to concentration + charge
gradients

A

electrochemical gradient

199
Q

what is the charge on membrane potentials

A

negative

200
Q

resting potential

A

difference in
charge across membrane when
neuron is not communicating
with other cells

201
Q

extracellular fluid

A

more Na + and Cl-

202
Q

interior of membrane

A

Na+ & Cl- down, K+ & amino acids & organic solutes up

203
Q

Ions such as these can cross plasma membranes efficiently in only one of three ways

A

primary active transport,
secondary active transport, and diffusion

204
Q

At rest, __ __ of a neuron is relatively impermeable to
most cations

A

plasma membrane

205
Q

primary active transport

A

uses ATP (e.g., Na+/K+ pump)

206
Q

secondary active transport,what kind of energy does it use

A

uses electrochemical energy
(e.g., co-transporters: symport, antiport

207
Q

diffusion

A

no energy, ion channel

208
Q

resting potential of neuron maintained, 1- Na+-K+ ATPase pump

A

Na+= out of cell, K+= inside the cell
Na+= higher conc. out membrane, K+= higher conc. inside membrane

209
Q

resting potential of neuron maintained, 2 -Neurons have high number of K+ ___ ___
allows leak of K+ across membrane due to diffusion

A

leak channels

210
Q

resting potential of neuron maintained, 3- as K+ moves out of cell

A

inside becomes more negative

211
Q

resting potential of neuron maintained- 4- buildup of negative charge begins to attract K+ and __ concentration gradient

A

counteract

212
Q

equilibrium potential

A

membrane reaches voltage at which
equilibrium exists between

213
Q

concentration gradient vs electrical gradient

A

Concertation gradient (that favors movement of K out)
Electrical gradient (that favors movement of K in)

214
Q

action potential

A

rapid, temporary change in a membrane potential;
has three phases:

215
Q

phase in which the membrane becomes
less negative and moves toward a positive charge

A

depolarization

216
Q

rapid depolarization

A

changes membrane back to a negative
charge

217
Q

hyperpolarization

A

membrane becomes more negative
than it was during the resting potential

218
Q

action potential depends on

A

voltage gated channel

219
Q

neurotoxins

A

block Na+ voltage gated channels

220
Q

initial depolarization leads to the opening of Na channels which ___ the membrane further which
leads to the opening of more

A

depolarizes, positive feedback

221
Q

how is action potential propagated - 3 steps

A
  1. at the start, the influx of Na+
  2. charge of spreading away from the Na+ channels
  3. they depolarize adjacent “downstream” portions of the membrane
222
Q

action potentials propagate in one

A

direction

223
Q

Once Na+ channels have opened
and closed, they are less likely to open again for a short period of
time

A

refractory state

224
Q

hyperpolarization phase in action potential propagation

A

Membrane is more negative than resting period
* Keeps positive charges that spread upstream from triggering an action potential
* During this phase, a much stronger stimulus would be necessary to raise the membrane potential to threshold
potential

225
Q

how does the diameter of axons affect the speed

A

cations meet less resistance in
axons with large diameters than
those in narrow axons

226
Q

how does a large diameter of axons determine speed of action potential

A

axons transmit
action potentials much more quickly than small axons

227
Q

how does myelination of axons affect speed of action potential

A
  • Membranes of accessory cells wrap around neurons
    Schwann cells: accessory cells in PNS
    Oligodendrocytes: accessory cells in CNS
228
Q

in myleination of axons Where these cells wrap around an axon, they form a

A

myelin sheath

229
Q

gap in myelin sheath

A

node of Ranvier

230
Q

The autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS) develops

A

when the immune system targets oligodendrocytes, destroying myelin
in the CNS

231
Q

synaptic cleft

A

tiny space between 2target cells

232
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

store neurotransmitters

233
Q

presynaptic neuron

A

contains synaptic vesicles

234
Q

postsynaptic cell

A

cell/axon on the other side

235
Q

neurons meet and transfer information at

A

synapses

236
Q

In response to the influx of Ca2+, synaptic vesicles fuse with
presynaptic membrane, then release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft by

A

exocytosis

237
Q

Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane, acting like

A

a ligand

238
Q

ligands

A

Molecules that bind to specific site on a receptor molecule

239
Q

what is the role of neurotransmiters in synaptic transmission

A

Many neurotransmitters bind to receptors called ligand-gated ion
channels, which then open and admits flow of ions

240
Q

Neurotransmitter’s ___ ____ is transduced to an electrical
signal (change in membrane potential of postsynaptic cell)

A

chemical signal

241
Q

Some neurotransmitters bind to receptors that activate ____ ___(chemical changes inside postsynaptic cell)

A

second messengers, gene expression

242
Q

what are post synaptic potentials

A

When neurotransmitters bind, ligand-
gated channels on postsynaptic cells
open and allow Na+ to enter the cell,
causing depolarization

243
Q
  • Excitatory postsynaptic potentials
    (EPSPs): cause membrane to
    depolarize, increasing likelihood of an
A

action potential

244
Q

post synaptic potentials-if several EPSPs occur close together, they sum and make the
neuron likely to fire an action potential

A

summation

245
Q

post synaptic potentials- When neurotransmitters binding leads
to an outflow of potassium ions or
anions, postsynaptic membrane

A

hyperpolarizes

246
Q

postsynaptic potentials- Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
(IPSPs): cause membrane to be
hyperpolarized, decreasing likelihood
of

A

action potential

247
Q

post synaptic potential- If EPSP and IPSP occur at the
same time in the same
postsynaptic cell, they may

A

cancel each other out

248
Q

post synaptic potential- Synapses can also be
modulatory―meaning

A

they
modify a neuron’s response to
other EPSPs or IPSPs

249
Q

central nervous system consists of

A

brain and spinal cord,
integrates information

250
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

neurons outside of CNS

251
Q

what is afferent division in PNS

A

transmits sensory information to CNS

252
Q

what does efferent division do in PNS

A

carries
signals that allow body to respond to changed
conditions in an
appropriate way

253
Q

somatic nervous system

A

voluntary responses, conscious
control: e.g., skeletal muscles

254
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

involuntary responses, not under
conscious control: e.g., cardiac
muscles

255
Q

spinal cord

A

made
up of many nerves, serves as
an information conduit

256
Q

Virtually, all the information
that enters the spinal cord is
sent to the ____ for
processing

A

brain

257
Q

Brains of all vertebrates
functionally divided into three main parts based on sensory
function

A

forebrain(smell)
midbrain(vision)
hindbrain(hearing and balance)

258
Q

cerebrum

A

bulk of brain, most of
the forebrain, divided into left and
right hemispheres

259
Q

diencephalon

A

relays sensory information to cerebellum

260
Q

brain stem

A

connects brain to spinal cord

261
Q

cerebellum

A

coordinates complex motor patterns

262
Q

the two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of axons called

A

corpus callosum

263
Q

In mammals, the ____ is very large and focuses on reasoning
and ___, and processing of multiple sensory and
motor functions

A

cerebrum, memory

264
Q

cohesion- tension theory -Water in xylem should experience a strong pulling
force during

A

transpiration

265
Q

After water is absorbed through root hair, it travels
through the root cortex toward the vascular tissues via
one of three routes

A

symplastic route( plasmodesmata)
transmembrane(aquaporins)
apoplastic(via spaces between cells)

266
Q

what is the casparian strip made of

A

waxy compund- suberin

267
Q

in root pressure hypothesis Influx of ions lowers water
potential of xylem, drawing in
water from nearby cells and
creating ___ pressure that
forces ___ up xylem

A

positive, water

268
Q

in cohesion tension theory Transmission of pulling force from leaf surface to root
is possible because

A

xylem forms continous network from roots to leaves
all water molecules held together by cohesion

269
Q

xerophytes- plant feature that reduces water loss through transpiration- does what

A

has adaptations for dry enviornments

270
Q

Evaporation from leaves pulls water through roots and
shoots under

A

negative pressure

271
Q

capillary action moves water through

A

xylem

272
Q

A ___ in the membranes of companion cells
uses the proton gradient to bring sucrose into
___ cells from the source cells

A

symporter, companion

bio second sem (4 decks)

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