exam 2 Flashcards
what is kochs 1st postulate
- the microbe must be present in individuals suffering from the disease and absent in healthy individuals
kochs second postulate
the microbe must be isolated and grown in pure culture
kochs 3rd postulate
injection of the microbe into a healthy animal should cause the disease symptoms to appear
kochs 4 postulate
the microbe should be isolatable again from the diseased animal and shown to be identical in size, shape, and color to the original microbe
bacteria can live on____ substrate to form__
mucilage, colonies
example of mucilage
plaque on teeth. ecology of the mouth, different bacteria colonize different parts of the mouth.
what do microorganisms compete for
space
what is penicillins mode of action
it prevents the cross-linking of small peptide chains in peptidoglycan
what do probiotics do
introduce of live friendly bacteria into a patients digestive tract. ex. fecal flora
the ecological importance of probiotics
co exist with other organisms. amphibian species have natural bacteria that fight off fungal infections.
2 strategies of bioremediation
- fertilizing contaminated sites to encourage the growth of existing bacteria and archaea that degrade toxic compounds.
- seeding, adding specific species of bacteria to contaminated sites
prokaryotes are what type of group
paraphyletic
taxonomy of eukaryotes
eu-true karyo- cell
what is the outgroup between archaea eukarya and bacteria?
bacteria
bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes, what are some common features?
-absence of a nucleus, membrane enclosed cytoplasmic organelles, cytoskeleton. -unicellularity
-presence of DNA RNA enzymes to transcribe and translate genetic code into protein
binary fission vs mitosis
fission involves the replication and division of a single chromosome, while mitosis imultiple chromosomes.
bacteria is what group
monophyletic
shared traits for bacteria
-circular dna, not in nucleus
-no cytoskeleton
-no mitosis- instead fission
prokaryotes have what that bacteria doesn’t have
-peptidoglycan in cell walls (polymer of amino groups)
thick layer and a purple color indicates what
gram positive
what is the earliest fossil of life
cyanobacteria-3.5 billion.
the signature RNA sequence is found in what
ALL tested archaea and eukarya but NO bacteria
archaea characteristics (habitat, group, oxygen, etc.)
live in extreme habitats, monophyletic, low oxygen, high temp, extreme salinity
synapomorphies for archaea
absence of peptidogylycan in cell walls, unique lipids in cell membrane, unique genes
habitat words- thermophillic, acidophillic, anaerobic methanogens
- hot
- acidic
- animal guts
what are the 5 archaean kingdoms
crenarcheota, euryarchaeota, thaurmarchaeota, korarchaeota, nanoarchaeota
crenarchaeota characteristics
often thermophillic and acidophillic, yellowstone hot springs
euryarchaeota characteristics
some are methanogens, often halophillic(salt) , thermophillic, deep ocean vents
thaumarchaeota charac.
abundant in the oceans, mesophillic
kararchaeota charac
some found in hot springs
nanoarchaeota charac
parasite of another archaea
proteobacteria
purple bacteria, diverse metabolically, mitochondria of eukaryotes derived from species of proteobacteria.
cyanobacteria charac.
photosynthetic, single cells or colonies, blue-green bacteria-formerly alagae
firmicutes
low GC gram positive, most are coccus and bacillus shaped, some members are common in human gut, some used to ferment dairy products
actinobacteria
HIGH GC gram positive, share similar structures to fungus(mycelia), streptomyces genus is a huge source of antibiotics used in medicine today.
spirochaetes
distinguished by their corkscrew shape and flagella
both syphillis and lyme disease are caused by spirochaete bacteria
chlamydiae
coccus shaped, all are parasitic
why are protists important
bottom of food chain- nutritional foundation for life
meicine- due to parasitic infection
all eukaryotes are___ except for fungi, animals, and land plants
protists - paraphyletic
2 common charc for protists (size and abundant where)
most abundant in moist habitats, most of them microscopic in size
phagotrophy
heterotrophs that ingest particles
osmotrophs
heterotrophs that rely on uptake of small organic molecules
autotrophs
photosynthetic
mixotrophs
able to use autotrophy and phagotrophy or osmotrophy depending on conditions
ciliates
cilia- shorter and more abundant than flagella
amoebae
amoeboid movement, use pseudopodia
algae, protozoa, and fungus like names
- plant-like, photosynthetic and non
- animal like- heterotrophic
- resemble fungi in body form and absorptive nutrition.
plankton and the 2 types and how they gain energy
swimming or floating
phytoplankton- photosynthetic
zooplankton-heterotrophic
periphyton
attached by mucilage to underwater surfaces, produce multicellular bodies-seaweed
asexual reproduction and do protists use this
all protists can reproduce asexually- same dna as parent
sexual reproduction
2N organisms
2 of each chromosome
half genes from mom and other half from dad
human gametes are
haploid but 1 from each parent makes it diploid
meiosis and mitosis of ploidity
meiosis- production of 1N from 2N
mitosis- 2N to 2N, or 1N to 1N
all cells except the __ are diploid
gametes
asexual reproduction __ the size of daughter cells
reduces
sexual reproduction ___ maximal size
restores
zygotic life cycles
most unicellular sexually reproducing protists, survive like cysts - thick walled diploid zygotes
in zygotic life cycles, haploid cells __ into ___
transform, gametes
sporic life cycle, alteration of generations
2 types of multicellular organisms.
haploid gametophyte produces gametes
diploid sporophyte produces spores by meiosis
sexualproduces gamete then alternates to asexual reproduction-sporophytes
super groups
excavata, related to earliest eukaryotes, phagotrophy
plantae, are they protists?
obtained plastids by primary endosymbiosis- land plants not protists
alveolata-protists
named for saclike membraneous vesicle. ciliophora, dinozoa, apicomplexa
dinozoa/dinoflagellates in alveolata
some are photosynthetic, others not
important in nearshore oceans
apicomplexa in alveolata
medically important parasites, plasmodium
stramenopila
wide range of algae, protozoa, and fungus-like protists. named for strawlike hairs on flagella
plastids
a membrane-bound organelle found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms;. They are considered to be intracellular endosymbiotic cyanobacteria.
where does stramenopila plastids come from
secondary endosymbiosis- more than 2 envelopes
endosymbiosis
where there are tow organisms and one is living within the other- example chloroplast and mitochondria, some human parasites
rhizaria
have thin, hairlike extensions of the cytoplasm- filose pseudopodia
opisthokonta
named for posterior flagellum on swimming cells
plant charc.
eukaryotic, primarily photosynthetic that mostly live on land and display many adaptations
ancestry of plants
monphyletic kingdom, probs originated from single common protist ancestor
basal plants
liverworts, hornworts, mosses, lycophytes,pteridophytes
non vascular plants
liverworts, hornworts, mosses
vascular plants
lycophytes, pteridophytes
seed plants
cycads, ginkgos, conifers, gnetophytes, angiosperms
gymnosperms
cycads, ginkgos, conifers, gnetophytes
nonvascular plant traits
monophyletic phyla, share common structural reproductive and ecological features. models of earliest plants
non vascular and other plants ___ a sporic life ___ with alteration of ___
exhibit, cycle, generations
adaptions to life on land, plants, meaning the sporic life cycle has _ multicellular life stages
2
plant traits are cellular (___) and structural (____)
retain water, help grow upright
seedless plants transformed ecology by liverworts and mosses produce __ resistant body __
resistant, tissues
seedless plants help ___ soils and influence ___ and precipitation
enrich, precipitation
vacular plants ecological effect
converted huge amounts of CO2 into decay resistant organic material
vascular plants- atmospheric oxygen levels ___ to a historic ___ levels, because less O2 was being used to break down organic carbon into____
rose, high, CO2
Seed plants were better able than nonseed plants to ___ in cooler, drier habitats causing what dominating plants to go extinct
reproduce, lycophytes, and pteridophytes
gametophytes produce what type of gametes
haploid
gametangia protects gametes from what
form drying out and microbial attack
what is the antheridia
round or elongate gametangia producing sperm
archaegonia
flask shaped gametangia enclosing and egg
zygotes grow into
sporophytes
when mature, spores are ___ in protective enclosures known as ___
protected, sporangia
plant spore cell walls contain ____ to help prevent ___ damage
sporopollenin, cellular
non vascular features- what is the dominant generation?
gametophytes, sporophytes dependent on gametophyte and small and short lived.
gymnosperms
naked seeds-not enclosed, trees, wooden shrubs
vascular cambium
produces thick layer of wood and thin layer of inner bark
what is the wood and thin layer of bark used for in vascular cambium
wood- used for water transport and structural support
inner bark- transporting watery solutions of organic compounds
ovule in seeds
sporangium with single spore and a very small egg producing gametophyte inside
seed plants produce __ distinct types of ___ in _ different types of sporangia
2, spores, 2
microspores in microsporangia and megaspores in megasporangia
microspores- pollen, male
megaspores- female, develops and produces eggs
in seeds, the pollen tube carries 2 sperm but only __
fertilizes one egg to become an embryo
ecological advantages of seeds-4
able to remain dormant to wait for favorable conditions, larger and more complex, can store food, sperm can reach egg without having to swim
phylum coniferophyta
seed cones, common in mountain and high-latitude forests
most conifers are __
evergreens
cold climate adaptations of conifers
conical shape and flexible branches, thick waxy cuticle, scale-like or needle shaped leaves
modern angiosperms defining features
flowers and fruits. “enclosed seeds” seed endosperm.
pistil composed of one or more ___
carpel
what does the pistil/carpel contain
stigma-recieves pollen, style, and ovary-pollen tube delivers sperm to ovule
why are flowers different
color, odor,shapes, and sizes other animals see flowers as different colors
diameter of floral tube matches ___
pollinator-coevolution
basal plants consist of
non vascular and vascular plants
seed plants consist of
gymnosperms and angiosperms
angiosperms- monocots and eudicots
monocots- one seed leaf, flower parts in 3. eudicots- 2 seed leaves, flower parts in 4 or 5
how are fungi and animals closely related
both heterotrophic, both use absorptive nutrition- secrete enzymes and absorb resulting small organic molecules, both store a surplus of food
fungal cells enclosed by __ ___ composed of ___
cell wall, chitin
fungi cannot engulf food by ___ due to rigid cell walls
phagotrophy
forms of fungi- single celled
yeasts- multicellular fungi have weblike growth
why is fungus furry
mycelia with hyphae
mutualistic fungi
association that benefit both partners, mycorhizzal fungi, endophytes, lichens
myocorhizzal fungi
2 most common types are ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae
association between the hyphae of certain fungi and roots of most seed plants
Ectomycorrhizae (EMF)
coat root surface and grow between cells of roots
Endomycorrhizae
grow INTO root cell walls and plasma membranes- (AMF)
fungal endophytes
live within the tissues of various types of plants. plants often grow better with this
lichens
2 separate lineages of organisms, part fungi part algae
the 3 major forms of lichens are
crustose, foliose, fruticose
in lichens what does the photosynthetic partner and fungal partner provide
photo- organic food molecules and oxygen
fungal- CO2, H2O, and minerals
lichen reproduction
sexually with fungal partner producing fruiting bodies and sexual spores
Chytridiomycota
simplest fungi, earliest, only fungi to produce flagellate cells for spore gamete dispersal, most decomposers
zygomycota
produce asexual spores in sporangia, not monophyletic, some are parasites
glomeromycota
(AM) fungi, only asexual reproduction, recently defined as a group
ascomycota
unique sporangia called asci, produce sexual spores and ascospores, terrestrial and aquatic habitats
ascocarps in ascomyota
asci produced on fruiting bodies - cup shaped
basidiomycota
most recently evolved group of fungi, Important decomposers and mycorrhizal partners, fruiting bodies called basidiocarps, asexually
characteristics of animals
multicellular, heterotrophs, lack cell walls, sexual repro. unique cell junctions, monophyletic
4 main morphological and developmental features of animals
- Presence or absence of different tissue types
- Type of body symmetry
- Presence or absence of a true body cavity
- Patterns of embryonic development
metazoa divided into…parazoa and eumetazoa
parazoa- no specialized tissues or organs
eumetazoa- more than one type of tissue and organs-radiata or bilateria
radiata vs bilateria
radiata- radially symmetrical
bilateria- bilaterally symmetrical
radial animals have _ and aboral sides
oral
radial vs bilateral animals - cell layers
radial- 2 embryonic cell layers
bilateral- 3 germ layers- has a mesoderm as well
cleavage in the __ can be spiral (___) or radial (__)
zygote, protostomes, deuterostomes
what is a protostome
cleavage determinate, blastopore -mouth, shizo development
deuterostome
cleavage is indeterminate, blastopore becomes anus, entero development
protostome, parazoa- phylum porifera
sponges, loosely organized and lack tissues, multicellular, no apparent symmetry, reproduce with both, hermaphrodites
water drawn through pores (___) into spongocoel and flows out through the ___ in parazoans
osita, osculum
Phyla Cnidaria and Ctenophora
radial symmetry, 2 embryonic germ layers
Phylum Cnidaria structure
2 different body forms- medusa and polyp
Phylum Ctenophora
comb jellies, 2 tentacles without stinging cells- look like jellyfish, first complete gut mouth and anus, bioluminescent, hermaphroditic
Phylum Platyhelminthes
flatworms, lack respiratory and circulatory system, 3 germ layers, acoelomate
planaria
incomplete digestive system, regeneration, distinct excretory system
turbellaria
free-living, planaria
monogenea
fish flukes
cestoda
tapeworms, parasitic
trematoda
flukes, parasitic- more complex life cycle with multiple hosts
Phylum Rotifera
named for ciliated corona, digestive tract, unique reproduction
Phylum Mollusca
snail, body has 3 parts, open circulatory system, radula- tongue like organ
molluscs
separate sexes although some hermaphroditic, external fertilization- some internal, how snails colonize land
gastropods
Snails, slugs and nudibranchs
Polyplacophorans
chitons
bivalves
clams, mussels, oysters
cephalopods
octopuses, squids, nautiluses, fast swimming marine predators, closed circulatory system, beaklike jaw
Phylum Annelida
rings are distinct segments separated by a septum, double transport system
annelids
digestive system complete and unsegmented- sexual repro. involved 2 individuals, asexual reproduction by fission- leeches dont have setae
Class Polychaeta
marine worms- rich, many long setae
Class Oligochaeta
earthworms- role in conditioning soil through castings
Class Hirudinea
leeches, anticoagulant
Ecdysozoa
ecdysis or molting, all posses a cuticle for support and protection- metamorphosis
Phylum Nematoda
roundworms, nearly all habitats, complete digestive tract
parasites
sexual repro. with separate males and females, internal fertilization
Phylum Arthropoda
perhaps most successful phylum-body plan, exoskeleton made of chitin and protein
anthropoda- 6 characteristics
segmented with appendages for locomotion, food handling, or reproduction. tagmata. extensive cephalization. sophisticated brain. open circulatory system, complex digestive system.
tagmata
fused body segments
trilobita
Extinct early arthropods, bottom feeders, little specialization of body segments.
diplopoda vs chilopoda
di- 2 pairs of legs per segment-herbivorous
chi- 1 pair of legs per segment- carnivorous
metamorphosis complete and incomplete
complete- 4 stages with adult larval stages very different
incomplete- 3 stages with young resembling miniature adults
Lineages that fed on ___ have become much more ___ that those that fed on gymnosperms
angiosperms, diverse
Crustacea
Crabs, lobsters, barnacles and shrimp
marine fresh water and terrestrial
unique 2 pair of antennae
Deuterostomia contain which 2
Echinodermataand Chordates
Phylum Echinodermata- symmetry, organs, other types of systems, endoskeleton covered in what, autonomy?
modified radial symmetry- no excretory organs, no brain, water vascular system, endoskeleton covered in spines.
intentionally detach body parts that will later regen.
Phylum Echinodermata
reproduction
reproduce sexually with separate sexes, external fertilization
3 classes of echinoderms
Asteroidea (Sea stars)
Echinoidea (Sea urchins)
Holothuroidea (Sea cucumber)
Phylum Chordata 4 innovations- watching them go through life history aka synapomorphies
Notochord – single flexible rod
Dorsal hollow nerve cord- has the brain
Pharyngeal slits
Post-anal tail
different grouping of chordates,
Subphylum Urochordata –
Subphylum Cephalochordata –
subphylum vertebrata-
- whole animal enclosed in tunic- sophisticated organs-
- lancelets-lack jaws and sense organs
- vertebrates- has a head and cranium
anus first head second
deuterostome- because a lot do not have a head
head first anus second
protostome
what is a blastopore
the mouth like opening
Myxinoidea
hag fish, jawless, finless, blind, no vertebrae, smells well and slimy as a defense mechanism
petromyzontoidea-chordata
lampreys, no jaw,
gnathostomes and agnathans meaning
jaw opening and jawless
chondricthyes-chordata
internal skeletons-no bone, cartilage, sharks skates, rays. chordates?
how do sharks stay buoyant and their cool traits
swimming since they are denser than water
smelling!
lateral line- line going down side of the body which detects movement in the water.
2 chambered heart-single circulation
detect electrical fields-my name
types of internal fertilization
oviparous- lay eggs
ovoviparous- egg retained in female- no placenta
viviparous- eggs develop in uterus, placenta nourishes young
actinopterygii-chordata
ray finned fish, bony fish. includes all except coleocanths and lungfish
coelacanths-chordata
thought extinct, but not. powerful bite, notochord filled with oil like fluid
dipnoi -chordata
lungfish, will drown if unable to breathe air but different than our lungs. gills and lungs.
tetrapods
4 limbs, important evolutionary step- Lobe fin fishes. vertebral column strengthened. gene expression.
hox genes
all animals have- can manipulate them. can change fins to limbs. backed by genetics.
anura
frogs and toads
caudata
salamanders
amphibians reproduction
successfully invaded land but go back to water to reproduce
amniotes
possess and amniotic egg- keeps embryo in protective layer to keep it from drying out- chicken egg
amnion in embryonic egg
protects embryo in amniotic cavity
allanotis in embryonic egg
disposal of wastes, yolk gets smaller as this gets bigger because yolk is the food
chorion in embryonic egg
with allanotis for gas exchange
testudines in reptiles
turtles, hard protective shell, lack teeth, ribs fused to shell
lepidosauria in reptiles
lizards and snakes, kinetic skull, lizards have moveable eyelids and external ears=snakes dont
crocodilia in reptiles
crocodiles and alligators, 4 chambered heart, teeth in sockets, parental care
last group of reptiles aves
birds, although no hands all the bones in the wing are in other reptiles. air sacs, reduction of organs,
aves and crocodilia share what
4 chambered hearts
mammals
evolved from amniote ancestors- when dinosaurs go away huge mammal boom
superpowers of mammals
name comes from milk glands- increases chance of surviving offspring, skull, more or less hair, special teeth
prototheria
monotremata- platypus and echnida, lay eggs lack placenta
Metatheria – marsupials
opossum, once widespread now more confined to austrailia, very undeveloped
eutheria
placental animals- prolonged gestation - how long in moms belly, years of parental care
prosimians
bush babies, lemurs,pottos, tarsiers- nocturnal smaller brained
anthropoids
monkeys-tails, can swing from branch to branch
hominoids
gibbons, gorillas, orangutans, chimpanzees and humans. no tails cannot swing from branch to branch
primates
thumb, no claws, developed traits to adapt to trees
the top of mt everest is
limestone- was at the bottom of the ocean
