EXAM 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Hematocrit
A
the percentage of red blood cells of whole blood
2
Q
Plasma is ___ to ___ percent of whole blood and consists of:
A
- 46-63%
- Plasma Proteins 7%
Other Solutes 1%
Water 92%
3
Q
Formed elements of the blood make up ___ to ___ percent of whole blood and consist of:
A
- 37-54%
- Platelets <0.1%
Red Blood Cells 99.9%
4
Q
Red Bloods Cells make up about ______ of the blood.
A
Half
5
Q
Name five types of White Blood Cells
A
- Basophil
- Eosinophil
- Lymphocyte
- Monocyte
- Neutrophil
6
Q
An Erythrocyte is a ____ ____ _____.
A
Red Blood Cell
7
Q
Red bloods cells are the most _____ formed element and they are shaped like a ___________ disc.
A
- abundant
2. bi-concave
8
Q
Red blood cells have ____ surface area and _____ volume so it has lots of area for gas exchange and there is no long distance for diffusion.
A
- high
9
Q
Red blood cells are slightly ______ so they can squeeze through capillaries.
A
flexible
10
Q
Red blood cells do not have _______ so they cannot make proteins, divide, or make ATP.
A
organelles
11
Q
Red blood cells live for about _____ days.
A
120
12
Q
Red blood cells get their red coloration from ________.
A
hemoglobin (Hb)
13
Q
Heme is a non-protein pigment, a molecule with one _____ atom and a site that holds ____.
A
- Fe
2. O2
14
Q
Oxyhemoglobin is _____ red and deoxyhemoglobin is _____ red.
A
- bright
2. dark
15
Q
Hemoglobin is composed of 4 protein chains ___ alpha and ___ beta. Each hemeglobin holds one ___ molecule.
A
- two
- two
- heme
16
Q
Anemia literally means ___ _______.
A
no blood
17
Q
Anemia is due to and causes…
A
low number of red blood cells or low hemoglobin content that reduces O2 transport and the body weakens.
18
Q
Symptoms of anemia are…
A
- lethargy
- weakness
- tiredness
19
Q
Blood loss anemia
A
loss of red blood cells due to hemorrhage
20
Q
Someone who is anemic should avoid ______
A
NSAID (non-sterodial anti-inflammatory drugs)
- aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen
- can cause stomach and GI tract bleeding
- inhibits clotting
21
Q
What mineral and vitamin deficiency can cause anemia and why?
A
- Iron deficiency anemia is cause by not having enough iron to make heme.
- Pernicious anemia is cause my vitamin B12 deficiency. Vitamin B12 is need for erythropoesis (RBC production).
22
Q
Anemia can be caused by a defective beta chain in Hb molecules. This is called _____ _____.
A
sickle cell
23
Q
Sickle cell
A
- defective beta chain in Hb molecules caused by a mutattion in the DNA coding for 1 amino acid.
- Hb molecules then stick together after releasing O2
- this causes RBCs to become rigid, fragile, and sickle shaped
- RBC molecules begin hooking together
- RBCs get stuck in blood vessels, block normal blood cells and O2 supply.
24
Q
Erythropoiesis
A
- process of making RBCs
25
Erythropoiesis is stimulated by ...
-peptide hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
(increases when O2 is low)
- androgens (ex: testosterone)
26
Hemostasis
-process of stopping blood or bleeding
27
What are the three phases of hemostasis?
- vascular phase
- platelet phase
- coagulation phase
28
Vascular Phase
1. Endothelial cells contract and release endothelin
2. Endothelin signals
a. for smooth muscles to contract
b. for endothelial cells to divide and repair
3. Endothelial cells become sticky
29
Platelet Phase
1. form platelet plug
a. adhesion (platelets stick to endothelial cells)
b. agregation (platelets stick to each other only 15 seconds after injury)
2. Platelets release chemical signals to stimulate clotting process.
30
Coagulation Phase
1. Requires clotting factors:
a. Ca
b. 11 proteins working in a cascade
c. Vitamin K
2. End result is fibrin produced and seal injury site
31
Coagulation Phase begins ___ seconds after injury. It can take ___-____ minutes to complete. Bledding usually stops between ___-____ minutes.
1. thirty
2. 8-18
3. 1-4
32
The respiratory system is divided into two parts: _________ and _______.
1. the conduction division
| 2. the respiratory division
33
The conducting division of the respiratory center is responsible for....
transporting air between the outside of the body and deep inside the lungs
34
The nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and the bronchial tree are part of what division of the respiratory system?
conduction division
35
The functions of the nose and nasal cavity are to _____, ____, and _____ the air.
warm, clean, and humidify
36
Capillaries of the circulatory system run very close to the inside surfaces of the nose. The warm blood inside of the capillaries ______ the inhaled air.
warm
37
Water evaporating from the nose's capillaries will ______ the air.
humidify
38
The hairs inside the nose and hairs inside the nasal cavity help to slow the flow of air as you inhale, and creates _______, which will cause dust and other particles to fall out of the air stream. These particles will be caught in the ____ secreted inside the nose and nasal cavity, and will not pass to the delicate tissues deep inside the lungs.
1. turbulence
| 2. mucus
38
The hairs inside the nose and hairs inside the nasal cavity help to slow the flow of air as you inhale, and creates _______, which will cause dust and other particles to fall out of the air stream. These particles will be caught in the ____ secreted inside the nose and nasal cavity, and will not pass to the delicate tissues deep inside the lungs.
1. turbulence
| 2. mucus
39
Pharynx
- region surrounded by muscular tissue connecting the back of the nasal cavity to the back of the mouth and upper potion of the throat.
- warms, humidifies, and cleans air as you inhale.
39
Pharynx
- region surrounded by muscular tissue connecting the back of the nasal cavity to the back of the mouth and upper potion of the throat.
- warms, humidifies, and cleans air as you inhale.
40
What is the larynx and what is its primary function?
- the thick cartilage at the upper front portion of the throat.(adams apple)
- keeps food and drink out of the lungs
40
What is the larynx and what is its primary function?
- the thick cartilage at the upper front portion of the throat.(adams apple)
- keeps food and drink out of the lungs
41
Trachea
- hollow tube traveling from the larynx and toward the lungs.
- its cilia cleans the air by moving mucus and debris away from the lungs and toward the pharynx.
41
Trachea
- hollow tube traveling from the larynx and toward the lungs.
- its cilia cleans the air by moving mucus and debris away from the lungs and toward the pharynx.
42
Bronchial Tree
-trachea divides into a pair of tubes called the right primary bronchus and a left primary bronchus, which transport air to and from the right and left lungs.
42
Bronchial Tree
-trachea divides into a pair of tubes called the right primary bronchus and a left primary bronchus, which transport air to and from the right and left lungs.
43
Describe the bronchial tree inside the lungs
- secondary bronchi
- tertiary bronchi
- terminal bronchioles
- respiratory bronchioles
43
Describe the bronchial tree inside the lungs
- secondary bronchi
- tertiary bronchi
- terminal bronchioles
- respiratory bronchioles
44
What ends the conducting division of the respiratory system?
the respiratory bronchioles (the smallest stems of the bronchial tree).
44
What ends the conducting division of the respiratory system?
the respiratory bronchioles (the smallest stems of the bronchial tree).
45
What is the function of the respiratory division of the respiratory system?
-to allow gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse between the air inhaled and the blood.
45
What is the function of the respiratory division of the respiratory system?
-to allow gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse between the air inhaled and the blood.
46
Gas exchange
the diffusion of gasses between the air inhaled and the blood.
46
Gas exchange
the diffusion of gasses between the air inhaled and the blood.
47
What chemical is secreted by alveoli in order to decrease the attraction between water molecules and this prevents the walls of the alveolus from collapsing?
surfactant
47
Air that has passed through the bronchial tree and is traveling through a respiratory bronchiole will pass into a bundle of hollow sacs called ______. Gas exchange occurs across the membranes of these ______.
alveoli
48
Lungs are composed of millions of tiny hollow sacs called _____.
alveoli
49
The alveoli in your lungs provide an enormous ________ _____ for gas exchange.
surface area
50
The walls of each alveolus are _____ cell(s) thick and surrounded by a ______ __ ________.
1. one
| 2. basket of capillaries
51
Capillary walls are _____ cell(s) thick,
one
52
The ________ ________ is formed where the cells of an alveolus meet the cells of the capillary wall. Gas exchange occurs across the _______ _______.
respiratory membrane
53
The in order to put oxygen into the blood from the heart, the blood travels through the pulmonary arteries that branch off and become smaller and smaller until the blood reaches the network of capillaries surrounding the ______.
alveoli
54
Oxygen in the air you inhaled enters the _______, diffuses across the _______ ______, and then diffuses into the blood carried in the _________. At the same time, carbon dioxide waste carried in the blood will diffuse out of the _______, across the _______ _______, and into the _______. This carbon dioxide will be expelled from the lungs next time you ______.
1. alveolus
2. respiratory membrane
3. capillaries
4. capillaries
5. respiratory membrane
6. alveolus
7. exhale
55
Place the following respiratory structures in the order that inhaled air enter your body.
- alveoli
- bronchial tree
- larynx
- nose
- pharynx
- trachea
1. nose
2. pharynx
3. larynx
4. trachea
5. bronchial tree
6. alveoli
56
What chemical is secreted in order to decrease the attraction between water molecules and this prevents the walls of the alveolus from collapsing?
surfactant
57
What is the cause of infant respiratory distress syndrome? (IRDS)
- a deficiency in surfactant
- the infant is born before cells in the alveoli start producing surfactant
- doctors treat this by administering surfactant to the infant
58
Does surfactant interfere with covalent bonds or hydrogen bonds?
-hydrogen bonds
59
Pressure
the amount of force something pushes against something else
60
atmospheric pressure
the pressure of the outside air
61
intrapulmonary pressure
pressure of the air inside the lungs
62
Air moves into and out of the lungs because of differences in pressure between the ______ air and the air _______ ___ _____.
1. outside
| 2. inside the lungs
63
When the atmospheric pressure is equal to the intrapulmonary pressure, there is .....
no airflow into or out of the lungs
64
When atmospheric pressure is higher than intrapulmonary pressure, then the will.....
enter the lungs (inhaling)
65
When the intrapulmonary pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure, then the air will.....
leave the lungs (exhaling)
66
Volume
the amount of space inside of any container
67
As the volume of a container increases, the pressure of any gas or liquid inside the container will _______.
decrease
68
Boyle's law
-pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume. (as volume increases, pressure decreases; and if volume decreases, then pressure increases.)
69
TRUE OR FALSE
| Your lungs do not contain any muscle tissue at all.
TRUE
70
You use ______ in your chest to change the volume of your lungs.
muscles
71
The most important muscle controlling respiration is the ________.
diaphragm
72
Diaphragm muscle
- bell shaped muscle forming the floor of your chest (thoracic cavity)
- does not attach directly to lungs
- most important muscle in controlling respiration
73
Your lungs are lined by a connective tissue called ______ _____.
visceral pleura
74
The inside walls of your chest are lined by a connective tissue called ____ ____.
parietal pleura
75
The visceral and parietal pleura are continuous with one another and surround each lung creating a separate compartment for each lung called a ______ ______.
pleural cavity
76
The pleural cavity is very _____ and contains a thin liquid called ______ fluid.
1. narrow
| 2. pleural fluid
77
What is the function of pleural fluid?
-causes the visceral pleura to stick to the parietal pleura so the lungs stick to the inside of the chest wall.
78
When the diaphragm muscle contracts, it bulges _____ and ______. This creates more space inside your chest and the pressure inside the ____ _____ drops. (intrapleural pressure)
1. downward and outward
| 2. pleural cavity
79
Since the lungs stick to the inside of the chest, they _____ as well during diaphragm contraction. As lung volume increases, intrapulmonary pressure becomes ____ than atmospheric pressure, and air is....
1. expand
2. less
3. sucked into the lungs
80
As the diaphragm muscles relaxes, it pushes ____ into the thoracic cavity. The chest also falls ______ and ____ as the chest muscles and connective tissue return to their original lengths. This _______ the volume inside the thoracic cavity. Pleural pressure ______ and the lungs contract. As lung volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure becomes ______ than atmospheric pressure and air is......
1. into
2. downward and inward
3. decreases
4. increases
5. greater
6. pushed out of the lungs
81
Respiratory Control Center
circuit of neurons in the base of the brain (medulla oblongata and pons) that control the rate and depth of your breathing.
82
Motor neurons leaving the respiratory control center innervate the diaphragm and cheese muscles, causing them to contract, and change the _______ of the _______.
1. volume
| 2. thoracic cavity
83
Nerves from the higher brain centers controlling emotion synapse with the respiratory control center cause changes in the rate and depth of your breathing when you are _____ or _____.
excited or depressed
84
As soon as your start exercising, action potentials from __________ in your joints stimulate the respiratory control center and ______ the rate of your breathing, even before blood oxygen levels can be depleted or blood carbon dioxide levels can increase.
1. proprioreceptors
| 2. increase
85
The chemoreceptors in your arteries monitor the _________, ______, and _______ levels in your blood and adjust the ____ and ____ of your breathing accordingly.
1. carbon dioxide, hydrogen ion, and oxygen
| 2. depth and rate
86
Carbon dioxide
waste product produced by all of your body cells as they metabolize glucose and other sugars for energy
87
One molecule of carbon dioxide combines with one molecule of water to become one molecule of __________ _____.
carbonic acid
| CO2+H2O--->H2CO3
88
The carbonic acid equation is always trying to reach ________.
equilibrium
89
When you are at rest, the blood concentrations of carbon dioxide, water, carbonic acid, bicarbonate and hydrogen are ______ ______. However, if there is more of any other chemicals, the chemical reactions will occur in a direction that ______ that chemical that is plentiful.
decreases
90
As you begin to exercise the cells of your body start producing more carbon dioxide as a metabolic waste product and it diffuses into your blood. As the carbon dioxide concentrations increases the carbonic acid reactions will run to the _______.
right. in order to break up carbon dioxide into carbonic acid and then into bicarbonate and hydrogen ion
92
A decrease in hydrogen ions will cause the blood to become more _______ and the pH has ________.
1. alkaline
| '2. increased
93
Hypercapnia
caused by the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood being too high
93
During Hypercapnia the carbonic acid equation will run to the _____.
right
94
During hypercapnia hydrogen ions _______ which also _______ the pH level of the blood.
1. increase
| 2. decrease
95
What condition usually occurs with hypercapnia?
respiratory acidosis
96
The carbonic acid molecule is not especially stable, it will break down in one of two ways:
- break back down to carbon dioxide and water
| - break into bicarbonate (CO3) and hydrogen ions
97
respiratory acidosis
the blood is acidic
98
During hypercapnia the respiratory control system will respond by _______ how fast and deep you are breathing.
it will increase it so the carbon dioxide will diffuse from your blood and into your lungs more rapidly and carbon dioxide levels will then decrease.
99
After the stage of hypercapnia when the carbon dioxide levels have dropped, the carbonic equation will run which way and why?
the carbonic equation will run left in order to decrease hydrogen ions levels. It will do this until it reaches equilibrium,
100
Hypocapnia
caused by the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood being too low.
101
When a significant amount of CO2 is entering the blood stream, many more hydrogen ions will be created. This makes the blood and other body fluids more ______ and the pH has _____.
1. acidic
| 2. decreased
102
During hypocapnia the carbonic equation will run to the _____.
left
103
Forcing yourself to breathe more rapidly can cause excessive amounts of CO2 to leave the blood. As carbon dioxide concentration decreases. the carbonic acid equation will run to the _____.
left, most of the existing carbonic acid will break down into CO2 and water molecules
104
During hypocapnia hydrogen ions concentration will _____ as a new equilibrium is reached.
decrease
105
During hypocapnia the decrease of hydrogen ions will cause the blood to be not _____ enough.
not acidic enough
106
Hypocapnia and _____ _______ usually occur together.
respiratory alkalosis
107
Respiratory alkalosis
the blood is too alkaline or not acidic enough
108
During hypocapnia the respiratory control center will _____ your respiratory rate.
decrease, so by breathing slower, carbon dioxide from your cells will have a chance to build up in your blood stream.
109
After the stage of hypocapnia when the carbon dioxide levels have increased which way will the carbonic equation run and why?
it will run to the right in order to create more hydrogen ions to make the blood more acidic .
110
TRUE OR FALSE
| the carbonic equation is always teeter-tottering in the process of homeostasis.
FALSE, the carbonic equation is only trying to reach its equilibrium. The respiratory control center is constantly adjusting the depth and rate of your breathing to maintain the proper balance.
111
The most important factor controlling respiration is the hydrogen ion concentration of the ________ ______ _______.
cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
112
cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
fluid bathing the brain
113
Negative Feedback Loop of Respiratory Control Center
| Increased carbon dioxide concentration in blood
1. Increased carbon dioxide concentration in blood/ Peripheral chemoreceptors generate more APs
2. Increased CO2 concentration in CSF
3. Increased hydrogen ion concentration in CSF
4. central chemoreceptors generate more APs
5. Respiratory control center generates more APs
6. Diaphragm and other respiratory muscles contract faster and stronger
7. Decreased CO2 concentration in blood.
114
Negative Feedback Loop of Respiratory Control Center
| Decreased carbon dioxide concentration in blood
1. decreased carbon dioxide concentration in blood/ peripheral chemoreceptors generate fewer APs
2. decreased carbon dioxide concentration in CFS
3. decreased hydrogen ion concentration in CSF
4. central chemorecptors generate fewer APs
5. respiratory control center generates fewer APs
6. diaphragm and other respiratory muscles contract slower
7. increased carbon CO2 concentration in blood
115
The most important factors controlling respiration are the ________ _______ and ______ ion concentrations of the _______ and _______ ______ ______.
1. CO2
2. H
3. blood
4. cerebral spinal fluid
116
As you are holding your breath, the urge to take a breath is mostly due to an increase in ________ concentration in the cerebral spinal fluid.
carbon dioxide
117
Partial pressure
how much of the total air pressure is due to any one gas
118
As you breathe, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged both in the capillary beds of your lungs and the capillary beds of your body's tissues. The oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in various parts of your body are measured as _____ _____.
partial pressures
119
What does hyperventilating before holding your breath allow you to hold your breath for a longer amount of time?
As you hyperventilated CO2 AND H levels were lowered so it takes more time for them to build up.
120
TRUE OR FALSE
| Hyperventilating will affect your oxygen level
FALSE
121
When you breathe you have an _______ concentration gradient.
oxygen
122
Which are the least important chemoreceptors of the respiratory control center?
oxygen chemoreceptors
123
DIffusion of oxygen and Carbon dioxide
1. oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient through the capillary beds toward body's cells
2. At the same time carbon dioxide diffuses down its concentration gradient into the blood.
3. Blood leaves body tissues and returns to heart, it is low in oxygen and high in CO2
4. Blood drains into heart through one of the vena cavas.
5. Right atrium and right ventricle pump this blood to the lungs though the pulmonary arteries
6. In the capillaries of the lungs, CO2 diffuses down its concentration gradient into the lungs to be exhaled from the body during next breath
7. Oxygen in the alveoli diffuses down its concentration gradient into the blood.
8. The blood is now highly oxygenated again as it leaves the lungs and the process starts over again
124
The lymphatic system is critical for _________ system and _______ system function.
1. circulatory (fluid recovery)
| 2. immune (site of immune cells)
125
The two parts of the lymphatic system include ________ and ______.
1. vessels that extend to all tissues
| 2. Organs and tissues that produce and maintain immune cells
126
The organ and tissues that make the the lymphatic system include:
- lymph vessels/nodes
- tonsils
- thymus
- spleen
- bone marrow
127
Humans have ___-___ liters of blood. The capillaries are leaky. ___-___ liters of water diffuse into tissues daily. This is called _________ fluid. Lymph vessels absorb _______ fluid. Once the lymph has absorbed any liquid, cells or debris it is called ______ fluid.
1. 4-6
2. 2-4
3. interstitial fluid
4. interstitial fluid
5. lymph fluid
128
Lymph nodes _____ lymph. They provide a cite for leukocytes to wait and to ______ pathogens or they trigger other parts of the immune system.
1. filter
| 2. ambush
129
How does lymph flow?
- filters into lymphatic capillaries
- flow through lymphatic vessels
- flows into the subclavian veins
130
Elephantiasis
- a parasite infects lymph vessels and prevents re-absorption of lymph fluid
- leads to edema in limbs and over time skin stretches and thickens
131
Pathogens
disease causing organisms
| ex: bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi
132
The body has two mechanisms to deal with pathogens :
1. nonspecific immunity
| 2. specific immunity
133
Nonspecific immunity consists of..
1. external barriers
2. phagocytic cells
3. immunological surveillance
4. complement system
134
The driving force that causes oxygen to leave the alveoli and enter the blood, and causes carbon dioxide to leave the blood and enter the alveoli is _________.
diffusion
135
Specific immunity
1. cell-mediated resistance
| 2. antibody-mediated resistance
136
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- also produced in red bone marrow
- 5,000-10,000 cells per drop of blood
- cells of immunity
a. based on original stem cell source in bone marrow
b. neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
c. monocyte--> macrophage
d. lymphocytes--> B and T cells
137
Nonspecific Resistance
| External barriers
1. physical barriers
a. skin
b. mucous membranes
2. chemical barriers
a. acid mantle
b. enzymes (lysozyme)
138
Nonspecific resistance
| Phagocytic cells
- neutrophils
| - monocytes/ macrophages (also important in specific defense)
139
Nonspecific resistance
| Immunological surveillance
- natural killer cells
- recognizes any abnormal antigens
- recognition results in the production of perforin
- destroys abnormal cell
140
Antigen
anything the immune system recognizes as foreign
141
Nonspecific resistance
| Complement System
- "complements"specific resistance __> activated when antibodies are bound to antigens
- 18 proteins
- complement proteins insert themselves into the membrane of the pathogen.
- the end result is the formation of a pore in the pathogen or infected cell membrane.
- water and ions enters the pathogen cell through the pores
- cell swells and lyses
142
Nonspecific Resistance
| Inflammation (redness, swelling, heat, pain, impaired function) is caused by
- chemicals that are released by cells or present in plasma
- hyperemia (increased blood flow)
a. due to vasodilatation and release of chemicals
b. causes heat in inflamed tissue (increases metabolic rate of cells and cell multiplication and healing)
c. bradykinin causes pain
143
Nonspecific Resistance
| Inflammation (when some chemicals cause capillaries to become leakier)
a. WBCs and chemicals escape into surrounding tissue (this and vasodilation cause redness)
b. tissues swells and veins become constricted
c. more fluid then drains through lymphatic system
- passing WBCs are attracted to the area by chemicals
a. attack the pathogens
b. mixture of tissue fluid, cell debris, and dead/dying WBCs and pathogens make pus
- PDGF stimulates healing
144
Nonspecific resistance
| Fever
-Increase in body temperature
-Caused by pyrogens
released by macrophages in response to infections. results in hypothalamus resetting body's thermostat.
-Beneficial
promotes interferon activity
elevates metabolic rate and tissue repair
inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses
-Liver and spleen hoard zinc and iron
145
A fever over 105 F is ________. A fever over 111F and proteins are ________.
1. dangerous
| 2. denaturing
146
The antigen presenting cells consist of...
Major hisocompatibility complex (MHC)
1. MHC Class 1 : all nucleated cells in your body
(Help! I'm infected! Kill me!)
2. MHC Class 2 : macrophages, B cells
(Warning-Here's a bad antigen! Find and Destroy!)
147
Explain how an antigen is presented to a helper Tcell
1. Macrophage discovers an antigen on a cell and eats the cell
2. Macrophages' lysosomes digest the cell but save a piece of the antigen.
4. This bit of the antigen combines with a protein on the macrophages' membrane to form a MCH II.
5. Bcells has special receptors that can pick up the floating digested material of the ''bad cell"
6. Both the macrophages and Bcells display the antigen to helper Tcells until tehy find the Tcell with the right protein receptor to recognize to antigen.
7. The Tcell combines with the MCH II (signal 1)
148
What happens after the helper Tcell binds with the MCH II?
1. utilizes CD4 protein and the naive helper Tcell
2. co-stimulates through cytokines
3. Tcell begins to divide and create more Tcells
4. These clone T cells a; produce cytokine
5. Stimulates non-specific immunity response, cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity
149
Two Keys of Cell mediated resistance
1. Antigen has to be recognized
| 2. Release of cytokines
150
Cytotxic T cells (Tc) and MHC I)
1. An MHC I is produced by the body and is infected by bacteria and displays itself for Tc to kill it.
2. Cytotoxic Tcells bind to the MHC I (signal 1)
(utilizes CD8 protein and receptor on Tc cell)
3. Co-stimulates through cytokines (from infected cell and Helper Tcells)
4. Activated Tc cells directly attack infected cells that display the same MHC I protein
-perofrin and lymphtoxin
- cytokines
151
B cell Activation Step 1
Step 1: B cells have antibodies for specific antigen on cell surface.
Sensitization--> Antigen binds antibody then can present antigen
152
B cell Activation Step 2
Step 2: Activation--> Bind helper T cell activated with same antigen = costimulation
153
B cell activation Step 3
Step 3: Produce plasma cells--> make and secrete antibodies
| - Produce memory B cells --> faster response if exposed to antigen again
154
A human can produce ______ antibody molecules per second over 4-5 days. It is predicted that the human race can produce ________ different types of antibodies.
1. 2,000
| 2. 10 billion
155
Antibodies main mode of action
Agglutination: antibodies bind to multiple antigens causing them to stick together and prevents transport throughout the body.
156
Immunologic Memory
| Specific response occurs in _____ _____.
lymph nodes (thats why nodes get swollen when your are sick)
157
Immunologic Memory
Immunity creates a memory of _______. It will have a quick response if presented with the same _______. ______ and _____ cells provide active immunity.
1. disease
2. antigen
3. Memory T and Memory B cells
158
Vaccines are weakened forms of a ______. They activate the immune response at a ____ rate. _____ and _____ are produced and if exposed to the same sickness, your immune system launches a rapid response.
1. pathogen
2. low
3. T and B memory cells
159
Passive Immunity
when you receive someone else's antibodies
160
Once helper T cells or cytotoxic T cells have been activated they will have a ______ response than naive cells with the next encounter of the same antigen.
faster
161
TRUE OR FALSE
| Cytotoxic T cells needs Helper T cells in order to co-stimulate through cytokines.
TRUE
162
Ingestion
the process of bringing food into the body
163
Digestion
process of breaking food into smaller and smaller pieces.
164
Mechanical Digestion
chewing, tears and grinds food into smaller parts
165
Chemical Digestion
breaks chemicals bonds of the molecules that form food to create even smaller molecules or atom
166
Absorption
process of transporting food molecules out of the digestive system, across the cell membrane and into the body.
167
During absorption, molecules from food can be transported into the ________ so that nutrients can be distributed to the rest of the body's cells.
blood
168
Defecation
process of eliminating from the body any ingested material that remains inside the GI tract. This is all the material that you ate that was not absorbed.
169
Anything in the digestive system is considered to be ________ of the body. Once food has crossed the membrane into the blood/lymphatic system it is considered ______ of the body.
1. outside
| 2. inside
170
The GI tract is one continuous ______.
tube
171
Mouth
- begin mechanical digestion
| - some chemical digestion of carbohydrates through the enzymes produced by the salivary glands.
172
Salivary glands
- found at the sides of the mouth under the tongue
- in response to sight,smell, or taste of food the salivary glands release a mixture of water, mucus and digestive enzymes.
173
Bolus
ball of food mixed with water and mucus that you swallow
174
Identify four components of saliva
1. water
2. mucus
3. amylase
4. lingual lipase
175
Esophagus
- tube that connects the mouth and the stomach
- is encircled by layers of muscle so it can contract in a rhythmic pattern to squeeze food away from the mouth and toward the end of the digestive system.
176
Peristalsis
the process of which rhythmic muscular contractions push food through the digestive system
177
The inside of the stomach is lined with thick folds called _____.
rugae
178
What kind of digestion occurs in the stomach?
Both mechanical and chemical occur. The peristalsis of the stomach creates the mechanical digestion and gastric secretions contribute to chemical digestion.
179
Gastric Secretions
Secretions from specialized cells in the wall of the stomach. Contains mucus, HCL, pepsinogen.
180
chyme
the mixture of food and gastric secretions
181
The stomach acts as a _______ _____ to hold food before it passes further down the tube.
storage sack
182
HCL causes ______ in food to ______ or unravel. The HCL also converts pepsinogen to ________ (the active form of the enzyme).
1. proteins
2. denature
3. pepsin
183
The inactive form of the enzyme pepsin is ______.
pepsinogen
184
_______ attacks the chemicals bonds between amino acids of proteins and starts to break down proteins into smaller molecules.
Pepsin
185
The _______ in the gastric secretions protects the cells of the stomach from being burned from the HCL.
mucus
186
What does hydrochloric acid do to pepsinogen protein?
it changes it shape
187
What is the cause of the burning sensation you get in the back of your throat after vomiting?
chyme
188
Sphincter
a ring of muscle that can open and close a tube
189
The ring of muscle at the top of the stomach is called the _____ _____, which prevents chyme from bubbling up into the lower part of the esophagus.
cardiac sphincter
190
The most important chemical the stomach produces is ______.
Gastrin
191
Gastrin
- a hormone that is produced by the cells in the stomach when your smell, see, hear, or something just think of food.
- also released when food enters and stretches your stomach.
- causes other cells in the wall of stomach to release gastric secretions
192
Place the following in order:
A. gastrin released by specialized cells lining stomach
B. HCL, pepsinogen, and mucus released by specialized cells lining stomach
C. foods enters stomach
C.
A.
B
193
Pyloric sphincter
- muscle at the bottom of the stomach
| - constantly regulates how much food is leaving the stomach and entering the small intestines
194
Small Intestine
- long twisting tube where chemical and absorption take place.
- lined with muscle and capable of peristaltic contractions to push food through digestive system.
195
Name the three parts of the small intestine in order and specify how long they are.
1. duodenum: 1ft
2. jejunum: 8ft
3. ileum: 12ft
The SI is 21ft long
196
As the acidic chyme begins to fill the duodenum and causes it to stretch, the duodenum release its own hormones. One of these hormones is ___ ____ _____, which travels through blood vessels back up to the stomach, and causes the stomach to stop releasing so much _______, and therefore less ______, _____, and _______. The effect of this is to quite the stomach and give the duodenum time to digest.
1. gastrin inhibitory peptide (GIP)
2. gastrin
3. HCL, pepsinogen, and mucus
197
The duodenum also releases two other important hormones, ______ and _____ that act on the liver and pancreas.
1. cholecystokinin (CCK)
| 2. secretin
198
Liver
- large organ below the ribs and above the stomach and other abdominal organs.
- produces bile
199
Bile
- complex green secretion created in the liver
| - stored in the gall bladder
200
When CCK from the duodenum travels through the blood vessels to the liver, it causes _____ to be released from the ______. The _____ leaves the ______ and drips into the duodenum through a tube called the _____ ____. The _____ mixes with the food inside the duodenum and helps to digest _____.
1. bile
2. gall bladder
3. bile
4. gall bladder
5. bile duct
6. bile
7. fat
201
Bile helps to digest ______.
FAT
202
Pancreas
-found below the liver, and between the duodenum and stomach.
203
Secretin released from the duodenum both travel through blood vessels to the pancreas. The secretin stimulates specialized cells in the pancreas to release a molecule called _________ into the duodenum. The function of the ________ is to _______ acids so that they cannot damage cells.
1. bicarbonate
2. bicarbonate
3. neutralize
204
CCK released by the duodenum causes specialized cells in the pancreas to secrete __________ ______, which travels through a tube called the _________ ______, and empties into the duodenum.
1. pancreatic juice
| 2. pancreatic duct
205
Pancreatic juice
-contains enzymes that break down fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and even DNA and RNA inot smaller molecules that can be absorbed into your body.
206
The walls of the small intestine are folded and bent into finger like projections called _____. The ______ increase surface area available inside the small intestine to absorb food into the blood stream.
villi
207
TRUE OR FALSE
| All molecules simply pass through the cells of the small intestine and into the blood stream.
FALSE, something require energy in the form of ATP
208
Most of the material in the large intestine will leave the body as ______.
feces
209
TRUE OR FALSE
| Water is only absorbed in the large intestine
FALSE, it is absorbed in both but the large intestine absorbs more water.
210
Bacteria in the large intestine feed of the material that you cannot digest. As a waste product they excrete _______ and ______ which then can be absorbed into your body. An example of this bacteria would be _____.
1. vitamins B and K
| 2. E. coli
211
Anal sphincter
regulates the movement of the feces out of the body
