Exam 3 Flashcards
group
Two or more people who interact and are interdependent
- needs and goals of group members cause them to influence e/o
group benefits (4)
- accomplish objectives that would be more difficult to meet
individually - An important source of info
- resolve ambiguity in the social world - Important aspect of identity
- define who we are and our place in the world - est social norms
social role
Shared expectations in a group about how particular people in the group are supposed to behave/act
social role cost
individual identities and
personalities can get lost
group cohesiveness
Qualities of a group that bind its members together and promote liking between them
age, sex, beliefs, opinions
Cohesiveness can interfere with optimal performance
If maintaining good relationships are more important than performance
group diversity
diverse groups perform better at tasks that req problem solving b/c high cohesive group members tend to agree w e/o
social facilitation:
in the presence of others and when individual performance can be evaluated, ppl…
do BETTER on SIMPLE tasks
- arousal enhances performance
do WORSE on COMPLEX tasks
- arousal impairs performance
social facilitation theories (3)
- Other people cause us to
become particularly alert and vigilant - Other people make us feel like we are being evaluated and apprehensive
- can cause mild arousal - Other people distract us from
the task at hand
- Divided attention produces arousal
social loafing:
in the presence of others and
their individual performance CANNOT be evaluated, ppl..
do WORSE on SIMPLE tasks
- relaxation impairs performance
do BETTER on COMPLEX tasks
- relaxation improves performance
process loss
Any aspect of a group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
- ex the expert in the group doesn’t share their ideas
process loss occurs (3)
- Groups might not try hard enough to find out who the most competent member is
- The most competent member might find it difficult to disagree with everyone else (NSI)
- Communication problems can arise in general
reduce process loss (2)
- have group discussions last long enough to get beyond what everyone already knows.
- Assign different members specific tasks so that they alone are responsible for certain types of info
groupthink
maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
groupthink occurs (3)
- highly cohesive
- isolated from contrary opinions
- ruled by a directive leader who makes their wishes known
avoiding groupthink (4)
- remain impartial
- seek outside opinions
- seek anonymous opinions
- create subgroups
group polarization
The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
- engaging in more extreme behaviors/activities as a group that you wouldn’t do alone
group polarization occurs (2)
- Persuasive arguments
interpretation - Social comparison interpretation
Persuasive arguments
interpretation
Individuals bring to the group a set of arguments, some of which have not been considered by other individuals, in order to PERSUADE the group to do something
ex “everyone does it. It’s gonna be fun”
Social comparison interpretation
When people discuss an issue in a group, they first explore how everyone else feels by COMPARING their feelings about the issue
“if everyone is doing it, then I’m gonna do it too”
- taking a position that is similar to everyone elseʼs but a little more extreme to be liked
Great person theory
certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation
leadership styles (2)
- transactional
- transformational
transactional leaders
Leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
transformational leaders
Leaders who inspire followers
to focus on common, long-term goals
ex politicians
Social Dilemmas
A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone
- self interest over interest of others
Prisonerʼs Dilemma
Two people must choose one of 2 options without knowing what the other person will choose.
- Payoff depends on the choices of both ppl
adapting cooperative strategy in PD (3)
- playing game w a friend
- expecting to interact w other person in the future
- change norms about expected behavior
Tit-for-tat strategy
first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial
Integrative solution
conflict solution whereby parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests to unify their differences
- each side concedes the most on
issues that important to the other side
interpersonal relationships are determined by (5)
- proximity (propinquity)
- similarity
- reciprocal liking
- familiarity
- attraction
Propinquity/proximity Effect
the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends
- occurs by chance
Functional distance
certain aspects of architectural design that make it more likely that some people will come into contact w e/o more often than w others
- The environments we inhabit increase / decrease interaction opportunities
Mere Exposure Effect
the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it
- The more we are around a person, the better we like them
similarity
Greater similarity leads to more liking
- demographics
- interests
- physical attraction
reciprocal liking
We like people who like us
- For initial attraction,
reciprocal liking can overcome dissimilarity
familiarity
People prefer faces that most resemble their own
- b/c we are most familiar w our own
familiarity attributed to (3)
- propinquity: gain familiarity thru exposure
- similarity: similar = familiar
- reciprocal liking: ppl we like and get to know become familiar
psychical attractiveness
symmetry in facial features
attractive ppl assumptions
- better health
- better earnings
- better teaching evaluations
- social and extraverted
- happy
- popular
- sexual
halo effect
assuming that an individual with one positive characteristic also possesses other (even unrelated) positive characteristics
ex attractive ppl are perceived to be smarter, funnier, more likeable
self fulfilling prophecy
attractive ppl receive a great deal of social attention
-> Helps them develop good social skills
love/attraction types (2)
- companionate
- passionate
companionate love
The intimacy and affection we feel when we care deeply for a person
- psychological intimacy: Don’t experience passion or arousal in the personʼs presence
passionate love
An intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid HR)
- When our love is reciprocated = feelings of great fulfillment and ecstasy
- when it’s not = feelings of sadness and despair
attachment style def
relationship expectations based on the relationship a person had w their primary caregiver
attachment style assumption
attachment style learned in infancy becomes schema for all relationships
attachment style types (3)
- secure
- avoidant
- anxious/ambivalent
secure AS
- Trust
- a lack of concern w abandonment
- View that one is worthy and well-liked
- More likely to develop mature, lasting relationships
Avoidant AS
Suppression of attachment needs,
b/c attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed/rejected
- Less trustworthy of others
- find it difficult to develop close, intimate relationships
- often uncomfortable with
intimacy
- Extremely independent, self directed
Anxious/Ambivalent AS
- Concern that others will not
reciprocate oneʼs desire for intimacy - higher-than-average anxiety levels
- Want closeness, but worry partner will not return affection
- enter relationships the most quickly
Social Exchange Theory:
People’s feelings about a relationship depend on (3)
- Perceptions of rewards and costs (Comparison Level)
- The kind of relationship they deserve
- Their chances for having a better relationship with someone else
(Comparison Level for Alternatives)
Commitment investment model
relationship commitment depends on their investment and what would be lost if they left (kids, home)
- large investment = less likely to leave even when dissatisfied
staying in relationship depends on (3)
- satisfaction
- alts
- investment degree
Equity Theory
individual output/input = other’s output/input
Exchange Relationships
Relationships governed by the need for equity (equal ratio of rewards and costs)
- New acquaintances
communal relationships
primary concern is being responsive to other person’s needs
- friends, family, romantic partners
prosocial behavior
Any act performed with the goal of
benefiting another person
- reason for helping is unimportant
Altruism
The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper
Evolutionary Psychology
we help others to increase the chance that we pass on our genes
- kin selection
- reciprocity norm
Kin Selection
The idea that behaviors that help a
genetic relative are favored by
natural selection
- Increase chances genes will be
passed along by ensuring that
genetic relatives have kids
- more willing to help genetic relatives in life/death situations
The Reciprocity Norm
The expectation that helping
others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future
Social exchange theory
maximize rewards and minimize costs
- People help when the benefits outweigh the cost
rewards (3)
- increase the likelihood of future help
- social approval and feelings of self worth
- relief of bystander distress
costs (3)
- physical danger
- embarrassment
- time
Empathy-Altruism
Hypothesis
When we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless
of what we have to gain
empathy
Put oneself in the shoes of
another person to experience their feelings
in-group
The group with which an
individual identifies as a
member
Urban overload hypothesis
ppl living in cities are constantly
bombarded with stimulation so they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it
Bystander effect
The greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help the victim
- Pluralistic Ignorance
- Diffusion of responsibility
Pluralistic Ignorance
Bystandersʼ assuming that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned
- If people assume that nothing is wrong, they will not help.
- When other bystanders are present, people are more likely to assume that is not an emergency
Diffusion of
Responsibility
each bystanderʼs sense of responsibility to
help decreases as the number of witnesses
increases
- we have to decide that it is our responsibility
to do something about it
Aggression
Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person
- hostile
- instrumental
Hostile aggression
Aggression stemming from feelings of anger
and aimed at inflicting pain or injury
Instrumental aggression
using aggression as a means to a goal other than causing pain
Relational aggression
harming another person through relationship manipulation
Evolutionary View of aggression
aggression serves an important function in terms of both individual survival and reproductive potential
- Males: behave aggressively to secure status
- Females: choose males who offer the greatest protection and resource
Frustration-Aggression Theory
frustration increases the probability of an aggressive response
frustration
the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal
frustration–aggression link
depends on (2)
- Size and strength of the person
responsible for your frustration - A person’s ability to retaliate
Weapons Effect
The increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or
other weapon
- due to priming
Consequences of Being Exposed to
Violence via Media (3)
- Numbs people to difficult, violent, and
unpleasant events - Increases indifferences to real victims of violence
- dehumanizing the enemy in video games can affect how players regard
real people
Catharsis
“blowing off steam”—by behaving aggressively or watching others do so—relieves built-up anger and aggressive energy and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior
Prejudice
A hostile or negative attitude (evaluation) toward people in a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group
- race, religion, gender, sexual orientation…
prejudice components (3)
- Cognitive: Stereotypes about a group
- Behavioral: Discrimination toward a group
- Affective: Emotions toward a group
Cognitive: Stereotype
A generalization about a group of people
- Certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual
variation among the members
adaptive/maladaptive stereotype views
- Adaptive: when stereotype accurately identifies attributes of a group well
- Maladaptive: blinds us to individual differences
Behavioral: Discrimination
unjustified negative or harmful action toward the members of a group simply because of their membership in that group
Institutional discrimination
Practices that discriminate, legally or illegally, against a minority group by virtue of its target of societal or company prejudice
- religion, race, gender, sexual orientation
Microaggressions
“slights” and put-downs
affective: emotions
emotions we hold towards a group of ppl
Negative emotions about groups are often ingrained.
- This makes such attitudes difficult to dispel.
ppl hide their prejudices b/c…(2)
- they have a sincere motivation to reduce their prejudice
- want to avoid being labeled
prejudice causes (3)
- social identity theory
- blaming the victim
- realistic conflict theory
social identity theory (4)
- in-group bias
- out-group homogeneity
- common in-group identity
- stigma based solidarity
in-group bias
tendency to favor member’s of one’s own group and give them special preferences
out-group homogeneity
in-group members perceive out-group members as being more similar (homogeneous) than they really are
common ingroup identity
social bias can be reduced by uniting people who belong to different social groups under one larger, COMMON, superordinate group
Stigma-Based Solidarity
When common experiences
of discrimination are made salient, perceived commonality and support among members of disadvantaged groups increases
Realistic conflict theory
Limited resources leads to conflict among groups, which leads to prejudice and discrimination
- Prejudice increases when times are tense, and conflict exists over mutually exclusive goals
social identity/stereotype threat
feeling evaluated as a member of a group, rather than as an individual
- possibly based on a stereotype
1. ID becomes salient
2. neg stereotypes about your group can be applied to you
reducing prejudice (2)
- contact hypothesis
- jigsaw classroom
contact hypothesis
prejudice and conflict bt groups can be reduced if members of the groups interact w e/o
- groups must share common goals
- be of equal status
jigsaw classroom
Classroom setting where children are placed in small, desegregated groups
* Each child dependent on others to learn the course material and do well
stress
The negative feelings and beliefs that arise whenever people feel unable to cope with demands from their environment
types of stress (2)
- major life stressor
- daily hassles
ways stress impedes health (2)
- alters immune system’s functions
- disease onset by engaging in maladaptive coping styles
resilience
Mild, transient reactions to stressful events, followed by a quick return to normal, healthy functioning
- Many people have the resources to recover quickly.
- The higher the resilience, the lower the vulnerability and risk of
illness
resilience predictors (2)
- perceived control
- internal-external locus of control
perceived control
Belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes
Internal-external locus of control
Believe that things happen because we control them INTERNALLY (I control my life) and EXTERNALLY (outside factors are in control)
- Do not believe that good and bad outcomes are out of our control
coping w stress (2)
- fight/flight response
- tend/befriend
fight/flight response
attacking the source or fleeing from it
tend/befriend
respond to stress w/ nurturing activities
social support (2)
- visible support
- invisible support
visible support
portrays person as incapable of helping themselves
- telling person who needs help what to do
invisible support
give support w/o implying person is incapable
- tell person who needs help someone they know went thru something similar
social ID threat police
police think you won’t respect them (moral authority) then they’re more likely to use force (coercive authority) to get respect
eyewitness testimonies can be wrong (4)
- encoding
- own-race bias
- storage/reconstructive memory
- retrieval
false confessions causes (3)
- police ask leading questions
- isolate suspects and put them under considerable stress
- claim eyewitness has ID’d suspect
reduce false confessions (3)
- req interrogation to be videotaped
- jury decided whether defendant was coerced into admitting things
- ask for a lawyer
juror decision making is influenced by (3)
- story order
- witness order
- diversity of jury
story order
presenting evidence in seq which events occured, corresponding to the story they want the jurors to believe
- jurors more likely to believe prosecutor
witness order
presenting evidence in seq that they believe will have the greatest impact, even if events are described out of order
false memory syndrome
recalling past traumatic experiences that are objectively false but that they believe to be true
promises of meeting ppl online (3)
- aggregating a large number of profiles for browsing
- providing opportunity
for communication with potential mates - matching users based on analyses of compatibility
pitfalls of meeting ppl online (2)
- Web site algorithms used to match potential mates by compatibility do not lead to higher relationship success rates
- inaccurate and dishonest profiles and photos on dating websites
- learning more about a partner during a date often makes you like that person less than you did when you had only seen a profile
cultures of honor
cultural norms and expectations literally “get inside” people, causing them to behave differently under similar provocation
- even small disputes put a man’s reputation for toughness on the line, requiring him to respond aggressively to restore his status
Deindividuation
Loosening normal behavioral constraints when ppl can’t be differentiated
