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Psych 235: Intro to Cognitive Neuro > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

homeostasis

A
  • process by which body achieves a stable, balanced environment
  • has set points and set zone
  • works in negative feedback loop (homeostasis counteracts whetever is deviating from set point)
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2
Q

set points vs. set zone

A

set points- optimal setting homeostasis is trying to avhieve (where system works best)

set zone- range within which a system can work (set point found here)

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3
Q

thermoregulation

A
  • process by which body maintains an ideal temp
  • in mammals: use heat-produced metabolism
  • in reptiles: reliant on behavioral measures because have low metabolisms
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4
Q

preoptic area (POA)

A
  • located in hypothalamus
    physiological responses
  • shivering: heat generated through metabolic burn required for motion
  • construction of blood vessels: body’s exterior reduced blood flow makes skin and fat better as insulation
  • activated by osmosensory neurons and baroreceptors, which increases drinking behavior
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5
Q

lateral hypothalamus

A

behavioral regulation of temp (ex: seeking heat sources, increase surface area of body that gets exposure)

reptiles often choose heat over food

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6
Q

thirst and the 2 types

A

the homeostasis of fluid regulation
1. osmotic: less water, more salt (via urination or salt consumption)
2. hypovolemic: decrease in body fluid volume (triggered even if [salt] doesnt change)

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7
Q

osmosensory neurons

A
  • detect changes in [salt]
  • found in circumventricular organs
  • fluid around osmosensory neurons too salty -> shrink -> opens ion channels ->depolarizes osmosensory neurons and send more action potentials
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8
Q

baroreceptors in blood vessels of kidneys and hearts

A

monitor cahnges in blood volume by detecting when walls of vessels stretch/ contract
- hypovolemic thirst

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9
Q

where is vasopressin hormone released from and what is the effect?

A
  • released from pituitary gland
  • tells kidneys to retain water
  • will slow down water loss but not fully fix the problem
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10
Q

nutrients vs essential nutrients

A

nutrients: chemicals required for the normal maintenance and function of the body

essential: those that the body cannot manufacture and must be obtained from diet
ex: amino acids, fatty acids (omega-3), minerals

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11
Q

what happens when we eat?

A

eat -> glucose levels increase -> insulin released into blood -> lets glucoes enter muscles and liver cells to be used or converted to glycogen

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12
Q

what is glycogen

A

glucose in its short-term storage form

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13
Q

what does low glycogen lead to?

A

fats converted back to glucose

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14
Q

what do low glucose levels lead to?

A

glycogen converted back to glucose by hormone glucagon

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15
Q

what happens if there is more glucose than needed in the short-term?

A

glucose goes into long-term storage in adipose (fat) tissue

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16
Q

what releases insulin and what does it do?

A
  • released into blood by pancreas
  • inhibits NPY neurons, which reduces hunger
  • allows glucose to enter muscles
    (not required for glucose to enter NEURONS)
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17
Q

diabetes definition

A

failure of insulin to allow glucose to be taken into cells that need it

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18
Q

Type 1 Diabetes

A
  • ‘juvenile onset’
  • when pancreas stops making insulin (too much glucose, not enough getting used)
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19
Q

Type 2 Diabetes

A
  • ‘adult onset’
  • when cells no longer respond to insulin
  • may lead to hyperglycemia (increase in blood pressure)
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20
Q

what is basal metabolism and where does energy go to?

A
  • level of energy used when you are at rest
  • where majority of energy is spent
  • energy goes to: heat production, maintenance of ion gradients, life-sustaining cellular processes
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21
Q

metabolic adaptation

A

basal metabolism decreases when energy intake decreases, but could cause substantial weight gain

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22
Q

hunger vs satiety

A

hunger: motivational drive to eat
satiety: feeling of being full/ absence of hunger

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23
Q

what do arcuate nucleus in hypothalamus monitor?

A

levels of hunger and satiety-relevant hormoens

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24
Q

what neurons can arcuate nucleus activate?

A
  1. POMC: signal satiety when activated, which inhibits hunger and feeding
  2. NPY: signal hunger when activated, which promotes feeding
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25
Q

ghrelin

A

released from digestive organs and activate NPY neurons

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26
Q

leptin

A

released from fat cells and inhibits hunger

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27
Q

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1)

A

stimulates insulin release in presence of food in the gut

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28
Q

semaglutide

A
  • GLP-1 receptor agonist
  • treatment for Type 2 Diabetes
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29
Q

what does hedic mean and what stimulates it?

A
  • pleasure seeking
  • stimulated by ultra-processed food
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30
Q

nucleus accumbens (NAcc)

A
  • located in basal ganglia
  • motivation
  • express mu-opiod receptor
  • ensures no opportunity to feed on high caloric food is missed (even if there is no homeostatic demand for energy)
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31
Q

bliss point

A

amount of an ingredient needed to make a food maximally delicious (engineered to be this way)

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32
Q

sensory specific satiety

A

the more you eat of a specific food, the less you want it

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33
Q

energy intake is controlled by _____ and _____ mechanisms

A

hedonic and homeostatic

34
Q

biological rhythms definition

A

periodic fluctuations in normal physiological processes that occur over different timescales

35
Q

circadian rhythms definition and processes that fluctuate on a cycle

A
  • fluctuations that happen over 24 hr period
  • processes that fluctuate: sleep and wakefulness, [hormones], feeding
36
Q

what is evidence that the body can keep time even without external tools?

A

daily fluctuations in bio processes are coordinated by internal clock

37
Q

Zetigebers

A

external env. cues that signal something about the time of day (ex: shift in light)

38
Q

where is the circadian clock located?

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus in hypothalamus

39
Q

where does SCN gets input from?

A
  • glutamate from ganglion cells in retina that carry info about phase shifts in light levels
  • cells are light sensitive (especially to blue light)
40
Q

where does SCN send info to and what does that do?

A

to pineal gland and releases melatonin

41
Q

what are EEGs used for?

A

differentiate the different stages of waking and sleep

42
Q

awake on EEG

A
  • desynchronized activity across cortex
  • high frequency and low amplitude
43
Q

when is synchronized waking activity seen?

A

seizures

44
Q

non-REM sleep

A
  • 3 phases with distinct wave patterns
  • early: low heart rate and muscles relax
  • final: slow-wake sleep, high amplitude, non-seizure synchronization of activity across cortex
45
Q

REM sleep

A
  • brain activity highly similar to awake
  • complete loss of muscle tension
  • most likely to report that you were dreaming if awakened here
  • cortical activity during waking and REM sleep is associated with conscious experience
46
Q

80% of sleep in ____ and 20% in ____

A

80% non-REM
20% REM

47
Q

biological functions of sleep

A
  1. developmental
  2. memory
  3. growth hormones released during slow-wave sleep
  4. immune function
  5. clearance of metabolites by increased for of CSF through extracellular space
48
Q

narcolepsy

A
  • overwhelming sleepiness occurs suddenly and unpredictably
  • have low orexin neurons
49
Q

sleep paralysis

A

brief inability to move before/after waking
dorsal pons- loss of muscle tension during sleep

50
Q

REM behavior disorder

A
  • no loss of muscle tension during REM sleep
  • people can act out their dreams while remaining asleep
51
Q

Locationist Definition of Emotion

A
  • psychological state, triggered by an external stimulus of situations
  • Different parts of the brain are activated for emotion
  • discrete emotions
52
Q

Plutchik core emotions

A

4 pair of opposites that produce different variations on the same emotion depending on intensity

53
Q

Limbic system

A
  • interconnected group of forebrain structures important for emotion and memory
  • Contains: anterior cingulate cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus (all emotion)
54
Q

Amygdala

A
  • emotional processing (stimulation here during surgery produces fear)
  • Patient with destroyed amygdala: limited fear of spiders or scary scenes. Also overly trusting
  • Information about threatening stimuli can reach the amygdala directly from sensory significance of complex stimuli
55
Q

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

A

removal of the monkey amygdala induces bizarre emotional and motivational responses
1. Reduced fear and aggression-monkeys became strongly docile
2. Strange food consumption behavior- non-food items consumed

56
Q

Constructionist Definition of Emotion

A
  • emotions are NOT psychological states, but instead a mix of other more fundamental psychological components
  • Core affect: combination of psychological processes and emotion: emotion is a value that your brain assigns to help you understand your reaction to a situation
  • emotions are NOT discrete
57
Q

Evidence for the constructionist approach

A

regions that tend to be active in fMRI studies of ANY emotion

58
Q

abulia

A
  • damage to anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
  • Powerful apathy that leaves individual incapable of of basic decisions
  • show diminished emotional reactions, reporting less intense feelings, and reduced physiological response to emotional stimuli
  • Demonstrates that without them our ability to make basic choices is lost
59
Q

facial expressions controlled by

A
  1. superficial facial muscles: create subtle movements in skin of face (ex: wrinkling nose)
  2. deep facial muscles: create larger movements (ex: opening your mouth)
60
Q

what are facial muscles controlled by?

A

facial and trigeminal nerves

61
Q

stress definition

A

The physiological response to aversive/ threatening stimuli

62
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)

A
  • regulates hormones
  • Controls release of cortisol from adrenal gland (increases glucose levels for when we need energy in emergency)
63
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A
  • activated by stress
  • Increase availability of metabolic energy (glucose) while also increasing utilization of that energy by muscles
  • Adrenal gland releases epinephrine (facilitates energy mobilization and use)
  • activation of it inhibits parasympathetic system
64
Q

acute stress

A

an emergency

65
Q

Yoked control design

A
  • master controls what happens to both. Master and yokes get the same stressor but masters are in control (learned helplessness)
  • Control reduces stress response and can make master resilient against future stressors
  • Control over stressors activates medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)- inhibits activity in amygdala and thus dial down the stress response
66
Q

Mood

A

baseline affective/ emotional state that persist across situations

67
Q

Mood disorders

A

disruptions or distortions in mood that significantly impair normal life activity

68
Q

anhedonia

A

inability to take pleasure in previous pleasurable things

69
Q

what does PET scan measure?

A

glucose uptake

70
Q

Evidence for strong genetic component in depression

A
  • ** Identical (monozygotic twins)**: if one, both 60% of the time
  • Fraternal (dizygotic twins): if one, both 20% of the time

Vulnerability to repression is polygenic (related to about 269 genes)
102 patterns
15 sets or functionally related genes implicated in depression

71
Q

Sugnenual cingulate in depression

A

takes up less glucose

72
Q

sleep disruption in depression

A
  • eduction in slow-wave sleep (stage 3 non-REM) (most restorative- may produce effects on memory)
  • REM sleep can occur immediately
73
Q

____ levels of cortisol in depression

A

higher

74
Q

HPA dysregulation

A

dexamethasone (similar to cortisol) does NOT suppresses normal cortisol release through negative feedback (as it would in a healthy individual)

75
Q

hippocampus categories and effects on depression

A
  1. hippocampal gyri
  2. dentate gyri (subgranular zone has dividing neural progenitor cells that give rise to newborn neurons)

hippocampus volume decreases in patients with depression

76
Q

Depression drugs

A
  • work on monoamine neurotransmitters (block reuptake to prolong the action of the neurotransmitter in the synapse)

SSRIs
MAOIs: inhibit enzyme monoamine oxidase, which breaks down serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine (Prevent enzymatic degradation and increase monoamines in synapse)

77
Q

Neurogenesis

A
  • some areas (hippocampus) get new neurons throughout life
  • Cortisol inhibits neurogenesis, while monoamines promote it
  • theory: depression tamps down neurogenesis and neurogenesis increases [monoamine]
78
Q

CBT

A
  • help develop antidepressant cognitive strategies
  • Premise: cognition can be used to alter mood
79
Q

ECT

A
  • electroconvulsive therapy treatment of refractory depression
  • Patient anesthetized and administered muscle relaxants, Similar to shock therapy
  • Nonstandard treatment for refractory depression
80
Q

novel/experimental treatments for depression

A
  1. Ketamine: psychedelic drug that blocks NMDA glutamate receptor
  2. Vagus nerve stimulation- electrical stimulation inhibits sympathetic nervous system, which may balance out dysregulated stress response in depressed individuals
  3. Deep brain stimulation- intracranial electrode implanted to stimulate specific limbic system regions (like cingulate cortex)
81
Q

Vagus nerve

A

primary parasympathetic nerve of the body

Psych 235: Intro to Cognitive Neuro (5 decks)

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