exam 3 Flashcards
What are concepts?
Mental representations of a category
Aspects of _____ memory allow us to categorize stimuli we have already encountered
Semantic (general world knowledge we have accumulated)
Downsides of concepts are “_____”
stereotypes
One way we learn concepts: ______ strategy - responding to all attributes of a conceptual class or category
wholist strategy
One way we learn concepts: ____ strategy - focusing on a single attribute of a conceptual class or category
partist strategy
_____- hypothesis testing about a concept by making guesses about which attributes are essential for defining the concept
concept learning
Categorize novel stimuli, fast and efficient understanding, inferences of knowledge not explicitly stated, relationship to language? - _____ of concepts
functions of concepts
____ - concepts in which members must posses both of two separate attributes
conjunctive concepts
_____- concepts in which members must posses either one of two separate attributes
disjunctive concepts
Members of a concept share in common - _____ resemblances; for example birds
family
____ level: the most generic and inclusive of conceptual category: for example a plant
superordinate level
____ level: the most useful level of a concept, characterized by neither too much not too little information: for example a tree
basic level
___ level: the most restrictive, specific level of conceptual category: for example a palm tree
subordinate level
___ view - where people create and use categories based on a system of rules; necessary and sufficient features
classical view
What are the two theories that make up ‘probabilistic approaches’
Prototype theory and exemplar theory
_____ theory - people abstract the common elements of a particular concept and then store abstracted prototypical representation in memory
prototype theory
The pros of ______: No set rules, generability - account for individual differences - fast decisions
the prototype theory
The cons of ____: hard to explain categories when individuals are very different
prototype theory
______- people take into account each encounter that they experienced w the members of that category; based on similarity among members and comparison to standards
exemplar theory
What are the pros of exemplar theory?
very good at explaining broad concepts
what are the cons of exemplar theory
need a lot of time to describe a concept
what are semantic networks?
Structure for how info is stored in long term memory, semantic memory specifically. Concepts are nodes and connected by links and pathways. Activation of pathways spread from one concept to another
The strength activation of nodes, which are concepts in the semantic network, depend on what?
Time, distance, and # of concepts activated
___- when concepts are activated in memory, activation spreads to semantic related concepts, making them easier to fully activate if needed
semantic priming
What are the four types of categories?
natural, artifact, ad hoc, and metaphorical
What are natural categories?
Occur naturally in the world, members of category share characteristics and features - plants
What are artifact categories?
Objects designed or invested by humans to serve particular functions - bowls and plates
What are ad hoc categories
Formed to meet a special demand - what to pack on vacation
What are metaphorical category
Category where there is a common underlying “theme” that unites members of category - things that are a “waste of time”
____- natural and essential characteristics that are inherited, innate, and unchanging
essentialist approach
_____ - highly structure symbol that allows for creative and meaningful communication
language
_____- discipline devoted to understanding the properties of human language and the mechanisms responsible for language acquisition
psycholinguistics
____- all the words (symbols) that allow for communication and comprehension - dimension of semantic memory - each representation include more than the meaning like the sound, written form
mental lexical
____ - process by which an individual produces a specific word from his or hers mental lexical or recognizes when used by others
lexical access
____- elements of a language that convey meaning
semanticity
___- the connections bt linguistic units and concepts or meanings are not predictable
arbitrariness
____- language allows us to talk about times other the immediate present
displacement
_____- the ability that language allows us for misrepresentation and deception
prevarication
_____- the ability that language allows to reflect on language itself
reflectiveness
____ - an infinite # of sequences can be produced by applying the rules of language
productivity
______ - features and characteristics that universally true of all human languages - universals are used to distinguish human language from animal communication
linguistic universal
_____- made up of phonology, pragmatics, morphology, semantics and syntax (think of diagram)
levels of analyses
_____ - analyses of the sounds of language as they are articulated and comprehended in speech
phonology
What are phonemes?
basic sounds that compose a language
_____- involves continuous flow of air through the vocal tract
vowel phonemes
___- differ in place of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing
consonant phonemes
What is morphology?
Analysis of how we manipulate and change phonemes to produce different words and word forms
_____- smallest units of language that have meaning
Morphemes
What are free morphemes?
Morphemes that can stand alone like walk-ed (walk)
What are bound morphemes?
Prefix or suffix morphemes; need company like un-happy (un)
When combining phonemes to produce morphemes, regular forms (system of rules) use ____ - and irregular forms (pairs committed to memory and used to retrieve each other) use _____
Procedural knowledge; semantic memories
What is word frequency?
Frequent words in a language are processed more rapidly than infrequent words
What is lexical ambiguity?
When a words that has 2 possible meaning is encountered like pool - swimming pool & 8 ball pool
____ - the rules governing the orders of words in a sentence
syntax
____- meaning or interpretation given to the spoken or written word
semantic
What is pragmatics?
Social rules of a language; the social context of a language
In language production ______ is deciding what we want to say
conceptualization
In language production ____ is the organization of throughs in terms of language
planning
In language production _____ is putting the linguistic plan into action
articulation
In language production ___ is keeping track of what we are saying and changing it if necessary
self - monitor
_______ - Chomsky’s theory of the structure of language - idea that we are all born w foundations and build different house w what we’re exposed to
transformational (universal) grammar
_____- the innate mechanism that allows the developing child to understand and produce
Language acquisition device (LAD)
_____ - sounds or words than can be combined to communicate a set of ideas
Discreteness
____- system of rules on how to combine individual units properly
grammar
_____ - evaluation of conclusion based on given information; does it make sense
reasoning
_____- the use and application of reasoning processes about on given info arrive at a conclusion
judgment
______ - process that involves evaluation of info, making judgements so a choice among alternatives can be made
decision making
What is the dual process view?
View that decision making is composed by two systems: one that is unconscious and automatic and the other being conscious and controlled
______ - the process of reasoning in which particular conclusions are drawn from more general principals (premises)
deductive reasoning
____ - in deductive reasoning, consistent of 2 premises and conclusion
syllogism
Premise: all psy 310 student are uk students
premise : all uk students are wildcat fans
conclusion : all psy 310 students are wildcat fans
example of a syllogism
________- evaluating whether a conclusion is valid given that certain conditions hold
conditional reasoning (if then reasoning)
clause : if i am taking psy 310(antecedent), i have to turn in hw assignment (consequent)
Evidence: i am taking psy 310
conclusion : therefore, i have to turn in hw assignment
example of conditional reasoning
______ - tendency to ignore the form of an argument and focus instead or prior knowledge
belief bias
_____- tendency to revert the elements in an “if then statement” and then evaluating the evidence against the reversed conditional for example ‘if I attend UK, I live in Lexington”
illicit conservation
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to only look for evidence that support what you already believe
What is the purpose of the wason selection task?
You are given an if then statement, depending on the statement you’re gonna turn different cards over to prove or disprove the if then statement.
_____ - drawing conclusion based on given info
inductive reasoning
What is the problem that comes with inductive reasoning?
People tend to look for evidence that is consistent w their hypothesis
What is availability heuristic?
The probability of something based one how easily examples can be recalled
______- judging the likelihood of something by deciding how representative the event seems of larger group or population for example thinking all people from texas wear tejanas
Representative heuristic
What is failing to consider base rate?
Failing to consider how often something tends to occur
_____- the mistaken belief that a compound (2 characteristics) outcome is more likely than one (one characteristic) outcome
conjunction fallacy
What is the “misperception of event clusters”?
Tendency to misinterpret what a random sample should look like
_____ - a choice between alternative; involves risk and uncertainty
decision making
_____ - a choice between alternative; involves risk and uncertainty
decision making
_______- when decisions are made based on expected utility of outcomes and their probabilities; rational decision making
Expected utility theory
What does the prospect theory propose?
That humans are not rational; we base decisions on amount of gains and losses
______- the way alternatives are presented, changing the effects
framing effects
______ - field of study that uses psychological principles to account for why people do not always make optimal or rational decisions
behavioral economics
_____ - asymmetry around a neutral point where losses are perceived to be 2.5 times more powerful than gains
loss aversion
______- we adjust our level of ownership, and it becomes the baseline by which we judge future gains and losses (think of graph)
endowment effect
______- goal directed sequence of steps and cognitive operations used to work through a problem in the face of constraints that must be observed and obstacles must be overcome
problem solving
What are the four components of problem solving?
Initial state, goal state, set of rules or constraints, and set of obstacles
one way to study problem solving: _______- transcription and analysis of people’s verbalizations as they could solve the problem
verbal protocol
What are the problems that come with ‘verbal protocol’?
- Depends on people’s verbal ability
- Assumes what is said is accurate
- Thinking out loud may interfere or change the nature of thought processes
An approach to study problem solving: _____- belief that behavior can be explained through conditioning, without thoughts and feelings - trial and error - law of effect - stimulus response - Edward Thornlike
behaviorism
An approach used to study problem solving: ____ - looking at humans’ mind and behavior as a whole - insight: deep useful understanding of the nature of something - Kohler
Gestalt Psychology
Approach to study problem solving: ______- general problem solving (gps): model of human problem solving that can be applied to any problem - problem solving seen a sequence of choices of steps, each creating an intermediate state
cognitive revolution
______ - branch of psychology focused on how people think
cognitive psychology
_____ - all the possible states that could occur when solving a problem - different layouts or approaches
problem space
______- strategy that involves repeated comparisons between the current state and the goal state, in attempt to reduce the distance between the two
Mean-end analyses
A way to arrive to a solution: ________- set of rules that can be applied systematically to solve certain types of problems
algorithms
Another way to describe _____ - leads to solution if correctly applied, cognitive and time demanding, usually used when the problem is well defined and has a single correct solution
algorithms
A way to arrive to a solution: _____ - rule of thumb - mental shortcuts that can facilitate problem solving
heuristics
Another way to describe _____ - is that it may lead to errors, does not guarantee a solution, and normally is not cognitively demanding
heuristics
What are three different heuristics?
- Trial and error
- Means-end-analyses
- Analogies
______ - strategy that involves generating a possible solution, trying that solution and repeating the process - works well when there are few possible solutions and/or only one correct goal state
trial and error
_____- strategy that involves repeated comparison between the current state and the goal state, in attempt to reduce the distance between the two - requires creation of subgoals
mean end analyses
_____ - problems that have already been solved for representing and solving a current problem in a similar fashion
analogies
Increases knowledge, automate some components of problem solving to take up less cognitive, follow a systematic plan, develop subgoals, search for connections among problems, change the way the problem is presented, try and practice: these are all ways to improve ________
problem solving
______- tendency to become used to a single approach or way of thinking about a problem making it difficult to recognize or generate alternative approaches
mental set
_____ - tendency to use objects and concepts in the problem environments in only their customary usual way - “think outside the box” - empty space as a positive
functional fixedness
