exam 2 Flashcards
what is memory
Persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information
What are the 3 stages of memory?
encoding , storage, and retrieval
What were Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) major findings?
- List length
- Effect of time
- Savings
- Overlearning
______ _______ a meaningless syllable consisting of 2 consonants separated by a vowel ex: HAQ
nonsense syllable
List length:
Longer lists require more repetitions
Effect of time:
Time has a detrimental effect on performance
Savings:
Rapid mastery of material that has been previously learned
_____ is additional study of already mastered material improving performance in delayed test (increasing savings)
overlearning
What were the major findings of Fredric Barlett (1886-1969)
- We remember the overall theme of a story but we normally omit specific details
- “Recall of event” = actual memories + reconstructions of various memories of similar events
____ information are basic ideas or main points of a piece of discourse
Gist information
____ information is exact wording ex: a prayer
Verbatim
_____ mental frameworks or body knowledge about some topic (person, place, or event)
schema
______ is semantic knowledge that guides our understanding of ordered events
script
What is immediate memory?
Set of processes that allows for manipulation of information currently in consciousness
What are the 2 basic concepts of immediate memory?
- limits of duration
- limits of capacity
Immediate memory has ____ duration and it is normally demonstrated w the ___-____ task
Limited; Brown-Peterson
According to George Miller (1956), immediate memory can hold - items of information, also known as “____”
5-9 items; magical 7 plus or minus 2
___ are fundamental units of short-term memory and ___ is the process of combining those units of information
Chunks; chunking
Coding consists of
Auditory and verbal coding
___ coding is dominant
auditory coding
The ___ ___ is a human memory system as a series of memory systems through which information must pass: 1. Sensory memory 2. Short-term memory 3. Long-term memory
The modal model (stage model)
Amount of information is limited by the physical nature of the ____ ___
Sensory receptors
____ - information can be maintained for only a short period of time
duration
Braddeley’s Memory Model is the model in which working memory has 4 components:
- Phonological loop
- Visual-spatial sketch pad
- Episodic buffer
- Central visual
What is the phonological loop?
Subsystem responsible for recycling information through rehearsal
____ ___ is the passive sire component of the phonological loop that holds on to verbal information (inner ear)
phonological store
___ ___ is the part of the phonological loop involved in the active refreshing of information in the phonological store (inner voice)
articulatory loop
____ effect - poorer recall of items when similar than similar
Similarity effect
____ ___ effect - reduction in recall lists of visually presented items brought by presence of irrelevant spoken material
Irrelevant speech effect
_____ ____ effect - memory span for words is inversely related to spoken duration-words that take longer to articulate (longer words) are more poorly remembered than words that take less to articulate
Word length effect
When the articulation of irrelevant information during verbal task affect the normal functioning of phonological loop
Articulatory suppression
The subsystem that is responsible for the storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information
Visual-spatial sketch pad
What is a mental rotation task
A spatial reasoning task where participants must encode a representation of an object and rotate it (360)
_____ ____ - the portion of working memory whereby information from different modalities and sources are bound together to form new episodic memories
Episodic buffer
The mechanism responsible for assessing the attentional needs to the different subsystems and directing attentional resources to those systems
Central executive
_____-____ Views- separate memory systems to explain memory function -> modal (stage) and working memory models
Multiple-system views
____ ____ - immediate memory is not a separate memory system - it is simply the activated part of the long term memory
Unitary view ( aka state models)
What 2 models make up unitary views?
Two state and three state models
In the two state model is the embedded-process view, which is?
Immediate memory represents the momentary and temporary activation of information in long term memory
What two factor play a role in ‘forgetting’
- Decay
- Interference
____ - information fading over time
decay
____ - information currently being processed is negatively influenced by the presentation of other information (garage example)
Interference
_____ interference - when old information interferes with new information
Proactive interference
____ interference - when new information interferes with old information
Retroactive interference
What is “displacement view”
When the new items “bumps” out previously stored item
____ view - the new item overrides a previously stored item
Overwriting view
True or false: according to unitary views, items in immediate memory blur into one another and become hard to “separate” during retrieval
true
What is executive attention?
The process whereby we strategically control our attention in response to situational demands
_____ _____ - mechanism that sets goals and priorities, choose strategies, and controls the sequence of cognitive processes
Executive control
____-____ is a situation in which a person’s attention and thought wander from the primary task to some other line of thought
mind-wondering
What are two ways to enhance executive function?
Exposure to nature & Mindfulness meditation - NOT MULTITASKING
What are the two types of long term memories?
Declarative memories and procedural memories
_____ memories - long-term memory knowledge that can be retrieved and then reflected consciously
Declarative memory
What 2 types of memories make up declarative memories?
Episodic and semantic memories
____ memories - memory for personally experienced events (stories, important events)
Episodic memories
___ memories - knowledge or information about the world (facts)
Semantic memories
_____ _____: this type of memory has no recollective experience at retrieval, it is relatively resistant to forgetting, and no affective component
Semantic memory
____ _____: this type of memory has recollective experience at retrieval, are vulnerable to forgetting, and often include an affective component (good or bad)
Episodic memory
What are procedural memories?
Nonconscious form of memory, such as priming and learning of skills and habits
____ memory tests: test that requires person to consciously recollect some specific event from the past
Explicit (direct) memory test
_____ memory test: successful performance does not depend on conscious recollection of some specific event or episode from the past
Implicit (indirect) memory test
Free recall, cued recall, and recognition are all types of ____ memory test
Explicit
Word fragment completion and word stem completion are examples of ___ memory tests
implicit
____ ____ - the advantage of distributed repetitions over massed repetitions
Spacing effect
____ practice is rehearsal that occurs in one long session; ____ practiced is rehearsal spread out across multiple, shorter occasions
Massed practice; distributed practice
_____ of _____ is important for determining whether or not information is stored in long-term memory
types of rehearsal
_____ ____ - mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory merely by being repeated over and over
Maintenance rehearsal
_____ ____ - the formation of links between material to be remembered and information already in memory
Elaborative rehearsal
_____ of _____ - all information receives some amount of mental processing. Information that is processed to a deep level will be better remembered than information processed at a shallow level
Levels of processing
___ - ____ : the finding the memory is better for information that you relate to yourself in some way
self-reference
____ ___ - if people bring a survival perspective to bear on what they are learning, it can improve performance
Survival processing
_____ - tendency to impose form of grouping or clustering of information being stored in or retrieved
organization
____ - the hypothesis that the more distinctive the item, the easier it is to recall
Distinctiveness
What is the Von Restorff Effect?
If one item in a set is different from the others than it will be more likely to be recalled
____ effect - the finding of improved memory for participant-performed tasks, relative to those that are not acted out
Enactment effect
____ effect - the finding that information someone generates or creates is better remembered than information read or heard
Generation effect
_____-_____ ____: according to this view, no encoding task is inherently better than another. Memory is good to the extent that encoding processing are appropriate for retrieval task
Transfer-appropriate processing
____ effect - the finding that testing one self produces far better memory than simply reading and rereading material
Testing effect
____ memory - memory of specific, personal experiences that comprise a person’s life story
Autobiographical memory
What are autobiographical episodes?
Mental representations of past events
What is autobiographical knowledge?
General knowledge we have about our own life and self
_____ ____ - inability to recall events from one’s life that occurred before the ages 3 or 4
Childhood amnesia
Before age _ we have few or no memories
4
Between ages - there is low rate of increase in memories
5-7
After age _ there is a steady increase in memories
7
What are ‘Accounts’ for encoding problems?
- Immaturity
- Lack of sophisticated language
- No established sense of self
- No consciousness about the past
- Inability to bind components of an event into meaningful whole
What are the ‘accounts’ for retrieval problems?
- Memories that we encode in a non-symbolic way cannot be retrieved after language develops
- Mismatch between the sense of self at early age and later on
_____ ____ view - encoding and retrieval component; encoding component refers to poor quality of encoding and retrieval component refers to children forgetting information quickly compared to adults
Complementary process view
The ____ ____ - superior memory than would otherwise be expected for life events between the ages of 15 and 25
The reminiscence bump
____ - standard forgetting curve after the reminiscence bump
forgetting
Lack of rehearsal, interference, and routine events don’t stand out - are all accounts for ____
Forgetting
____ autobiographical memories that come unbidden, often on response to awesome environmental cue (smell, object, taste)
Involuntary autobiographical memory
____ memories of extraordinary clarity, typically for some highly emotional event that is retained despite the passage of many years
Flashbulb memory
_________ - finding that given a particular encoding context, memory is better retrieval reinstates context
Context dependency effect
______ - where people remember more information if their physician or mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall
State dependency effect
_______ - refers to the idea that memory retrieval is improved when the encoding context is the same as the retrieval context
Encoding specificity
_____ - the uncommon ability that allows a person to recall with great accuracy and detail a vast number of personal events associated with specific dates
Hyperthymesia
The sins of memory are composed by what two groups?
Sins of omission and sins of commission
Sins of ___ is failure to bring something to mind
Omission
Sins of _____ is the presence of unwanted or inaccurate memories
Commission
_____ - loss of information from memory w a passage of time
transcience
____ - problems w interference between attention and long-term memory
absentmindedness
____ - failure to retrieve information in long term memory
blocking
____ - continued (unwanted) automatic retrieval of memories (PTSD)
persistance
_____ - memory is ascribed to wrong source
misattribution
_____ - false recollection perhaps due to leading questions or others’ suggestions
suggestibility
___ - influence of who we are on what we remember
bias
____ memory is a person’s episodic memory of witnessing a committed crime or dramatic event
Eyewitness memory
Yerke-dodson law is -
The inverted u shaped function that shows that memory is best at moderate levels of emotional arousal but poorer at low and high levels of arousal
_________ - (aka tunnel memory) at high levels of emotional arousal, people tend to have better memories central and poorer memories for peripheral details
Memory narrowing
What is the weapon focus effect?
The finding that memory for peripheral details of an event are poorer when they are salient, emotionally charged object (weapon) that is drawing attention and processing
___-___ effect: finding that people are better at recognizing faces of their own race relative to the faces of other races
Other race effect
_____ _____ seems to be linked w detrimental effects on memory
Physical exertion
What is the misinformation effect?
Incorrectly claiming to remember information that was not part of some original experience
____ ____ - failure to distinguish between a target person and another person encountered at a different time (mistaking waiter for robber)
Unconscious transfer
