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A&P lecture 2 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What affects % saturation of Hb

A

Composition of inspired air
Alveolar vent. rate
efficiency of gas exchange

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2
Q

What affects amount of Hb binding sites

A

Hb content per RBC and number of RBCs

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3
Q

Oxyhemoglobin Saturation curves

A

Show the physical relationship between PO2 and Hb saturation

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4
Q

Shift right/left on a Oxyhemoglobin curve

A

Right: Decreased affinity for O2 –> release more O2 to tissues, more significant
Left: Increased affinity for O2 –> more O2 stays bound to Hb

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5
Q

Normal numbers for Hb saturation at 100 and 40 mmHg PO2

A

@ 100 (arteries): 98%
@ 40 (resting cell/venous): 75%

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6
Q

Why is only ~25% of available O2 used at rest

A

Allows for a reservoir of O2 to accumulate on Hb incase metabolism increases or demand increases in another way.

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7
Q

Hb saturation of skeletal muscle

A

PO2 = 20 mm Hg
Hb 30%
–> Body using 70% of O2

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8
Q

Fetal Hb Oxyhemoglobin curve

A

left shift –> increased affinity
Need to get O2 from mom’s blood

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9
Q

Factors that cause a Change in Hb shape

A

Plasma pH, temp, PCO2, 2,3-BPG

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10
Q

Effect of plasma pH on Oxyhemoglobin

A

Drop in pH (more acidic) –> right shift, more O2 released

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11
Q

Effect of temp on Oxyhemoglobin

A

Increase temp –> right shift

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12
Q

Effect of 2,3-BGP on Oxyhemoglobin

A

Increase in the intermediate means increase in glycolysis which is increase of metabolism which causes a right shift and greater O2 release.

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13
Q

effect of high CO2

A

Lowers plasma pH (acidic)
CNS depressant (inhibits/slows neural function)

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14
Q

Ways Co2 is transported in blood

A

7% dissolved in plasma
23% Bound to Hb
70% Dissolved as bicarbonate ions which act as mode of transport, buffer in plasma, and relies on carbonic anhydrase
Go over transport pathway on slide 28

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15
Q

Regulation of ventilation

A

depends on skeletal muscle and somatic motor neurons

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16
Q

3 factors that influence rate of vent

A

CO2 receptors in medulla Oblongata (central chemo)
O2/pH receptors in carotid/aortic bodies (peripheral chemo)
Emotional and voluntary control
*Control still not totally understood

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17
Q

Neural control of breathing

A
  1. Resp. neurons in medulla control inspiratory and expiratory muscles
  2. Neurons in Pons integrate sensory info and interact with medullary neurons to influence ventilation
  3. The rhythmic pattern of breathing arises from a brainstem neural network with spontaneously discharging neurons
  4. Ventilation is subject to continuous modulation by chemo/mechano receptor linked reflexes and higher brain centers (emotional)
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18
Q

Dorsal Respiratory group (DRG)

A

Medulla Oblongata
Receives sensory input from CN IX and X and Chemoreceptors monitoring CO2
Controls muscles of inspiration

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19
Q

Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)

A

Medulla Oblongata
Pre-botzinger complex
Controls active expiration and greater than normal inspiration
Controls muscles of larynx, pharynx, and tongue (vocalization)

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20
Q

Pre-Botzinger Complex

A

Spontaneously firing neurons
Pacemaker of breathing

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21
Q

Pontine Respiratory group (PRG)

A

Pons
Receives sensory input from DRG
Influence initiation and termination of breathing rate
Provides tonic input to medullary groups

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22
Q

Central Chemoreceptors

A

Primary stim for changes in vent. rate
CO2 receptors in ventral medulla
Detect CO2 in CSF
See diagram slide 37

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23
Q

Functions of the kidney

A
  1. Regulation of Extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure
  2. Regulation of osmolarity
  3. Maintenance of ion balance
  4. Homeostatic regulation of pH
  5. Excretion of wastes
  6. Production of hormones
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24
Q

Regulation of Extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure

A

Work with CVS to maintain ECF volume

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25
Q

Regulation of osmolarity

A

Tied to behavior drives like thirst
Plasma osmolarity = ~290 mOsM

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26
Q

Maintenance of ion balance

A

Balance dietary intake with urinary loss

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27
Q

Homeostatic regulation of pH

A

Excretes H+ or HCO3- to maintain plasma pH

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28
Q

Excretion of wastes

A

Excrete metabolic wastes or foreign substance
Creatine, urea, uric acid

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29
Q

Production of hormones

A

Synthesizes erythropoietin (RBC production), renin (RAAS System aka BP), vitamin D conversion

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30
Q

Urinary system components

A

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

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31
Q

Kidney location

A

Retroparitaneal cavity, dorsal side, 11/12th rib

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32
Q

Kidney blood volume

A

Receives 25% of CO despite being only 0.4% of body weight

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33
Q

Structures of the kidney

A

Cortex, medulla, renal pelvis, Nephrons…
see slide 10

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34
Q

Nephron

A

Functional unit of the kidney; smallest structure that can perform all the functions of an organ
1 million/kidney

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35
Q

Types and amount of nephrons

A

Cortical- 80% within cortex
Juxtamedullary- 20% extend down into medulla

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36
Q

Structures of nephron

A

Glomerulus, afferent/efferent arteriole, bowman’s capsule, proximal tube, descending/ascending loop, descending/ascending limb, loop of Henle, collecting duct
See slide 12

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37
Q

Vasculation of kidney

A

Arrives via renal artery
Highest perfused organ in our body
Contains portal system

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38
Q

Renal portal system

A

Afferent arteriole
Glomerulus (1st cap bed)
Efferent arteriole
Peritubular capillary (2nd bed)
See diagram slide 14

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39
Q

Tubular elements of kidney

A

Single layer of epithelial cells, apical/basal sides, connected by tight junctions

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40
Q

Renal tubule consists of:

A

Bowman’s capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collecting duct

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41
Q

Bowman’s capsule

A

Fused to glomerulus, filtration
Not regulated

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42
Q

Proximal tubule

A

Isosmotic reabsorption of nutrients, ions, and water
Some secretion of metabolites and xenobiotics
Not regulated

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43
Q

Loop of henle

A

Reabsorption of ions
Primary site for creating dilute urine
More solute reabsorbed than water so filtrate becomes hyposmotic to plasma
Start 54 L/day end 18 L/day
Not regulated

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44
Q

Distal tubule

A

Regulated reabsorption of ions and water

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45
Q

Collecting duct

A

Regulated reabsorption of ions and water

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46
Q

Amount of fluid filtered per day

A

180 L/day
Only 1.5 L/day excreted

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47
Q

Four major processes of a Nephron

A

Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion

48
Q

Filtration of nephron

A

Movement of fluid from blood into nephron, only occurs in Bowman’s capsule, creates filtrate

49
Q

Reabsorption of nephron

A

Moving substances from tubule back into blood

50
Q

Secretion of nephron

A

Selectively removes molecules from the blood and moves them into the filtrate;
more selective than filtration, requires membrane proteins

51
Q

Excretion of nephron

A

Removal of substance from body; not technically a nephron process

52
Q

Renal Corpuscle

A

Glomerulus and Bowmans Capsule
20% of plasma enters BC
Creates the filtrate (180 L/day)

53
Q

Filtrate (contains and lacks)

A

Contains ions, nutrients, metabolic wastes
Lacks RBCs, WBCs, large proteins

54
Q

Descending loop

A

Reabsorbs mostly water

55
Q

Ascending loop

A

Reabsorbs mostly ions

56
Q

Distal Nephron

A

DT and CD (Regulated)
Final volume falls to 1.5 L/day (urine)
Hormones regulate water and salt movement

57
Q

Why filter 180 L/day just to reabsorb 99%

A

Protective mechanism

58
Q

Three barriers to filtration

A

Glomerular capillary endothelium
Basal Lamina
Epithelium of Bowman’s capsule
See diagram

59
Q

Glomerular Capillary endothelium

A

Fenestrated capillaries (more leak)
Blood cells not filtered
Negatively charged surface repels most proteins

60
Q

Basal Lamina

A

Netting
ECM that acts as net
Blocks proteins

61
Q

Epithelium of Bowman’s Cap

A

Podocytes wrap around G. Capillaries
Creates additional filter slits

62
Q

3 forces that determine filtration amount

A

Capillary BP (hydrostatic)
Colloid osmotic P
Capsule fluid P

63
Q

Capillary BP (hydrostatic)

A

55 mm Hg
Forces fluid through leaky endothelium –> favors filtration

64
Q

Colloid osmotic P

A

30 mm Hg
Proteins in plasma promote reabsorption

65
Q

Capsule fluid pressure

A

15 mm Hg
Bowman’s cap has fluid that opposes movement into capsule (favor reabs.)

66
Q

Net driving pressure of Capillary

A

10 mm Hg in filtration direction

67
Q

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

A

Volume of fluid that filters into the Bowman’s capsule per unit time
Avg: 125 mL/min (180 L/day)
Indicator of kidney function!

68
Q

2 factors that influence GFR

A

Net capillary filt. pressure (change in BP or plasma protein)
Filtration coefficient (SA of glomerular caps & permeability of caps)
GFR relatively constant

69
Q

How does GFR remain constant across wide range of MAPs

A

Myogenic autoregulation
Tubuloglomerular feedback

70
Q

Afferent arteriole vasoconstriction

A

Less blood entering renal corpuscle
GFR decreases

71
Q

Efferent arteriole vasoconstriction

A

Blood “dams up” in front of constriction
GFR increases

72
Q

Myogenic autoregulation

A

Local control
Stretch receptors, increase P causes constriction
Maintain constant flow to renal corpuscle

73
Q

Why does GFR fall when MAP is <80 mm Hg

A

Stop excretion of any fluid volume when blood volume is super low
Ex: Major blood loss

74
Q

Tubuloglomerular Feedback

A

Local control
Juxtaglomerular apparatus:
Macula densa cells detect increase in filtration which release paracrine to constrict afferent and reduce GFR
Granular cells secrete renin to regulate salt/water
See diagram

75
Q

ANS filtration control

A

Sympathetic neurons innervate afferent and efferent arterioles
NE binds a-receptors –> constriction
Drop in MAP will trigger strong SNS constriction of afferent

76
Q

Why is SNS control dominant during exercise

A

Retain fluid and redirect blood to muscles

77
Q

Reabsorption

A

From tubule to blood
99% filtrate reabs.
Active OR passive
Trans OR para cellular

78
Q

Active transport of Na+

A

Primary driving force for most renal reabsorption
Basolateral membrane (closer to BV) NaK pump

79
Q

Passive Na+ transport

A

Apical membrane
Na-H exchanger from tubule lumen to tubule cell

80
Q

Symport with Na+

A

Glucose, AAs, ions, organic metabolites

81
Q

Passive transport of urea

A

Urea at high [] is toxic
Moves paracellulary (no proteins needed)
Follows movement of Na and water

82
Q

Removal of proteins from tubule

A

If protein gets into filtrate somehow, it can get transported by: Receptor-mediated endocytosis (active)
AA move into blood

83
Q

Protein mediated transport characteristics

A

Saturation
Specificity
Competition

84
Q

Saturation of Renal transport

A

Max transport rate when all carrier are occupied by substrate
(Tm: transport max)

85
Q

Why glucose found in blood in Type 1 diabetes

A

100% gluc is filtered and normally 100% reabs.
BUT
Lack insulin = high [gluc] in blood = high [gluc] in filtrate
Glut transporters get saturated and glucose excreted in urine

86
Q

Difference between filtration and secretion

A

Secretion is specific and filtration is not

87
Q

Secretion

A

Movement from blood to tubule
Protective way to get things out of the body

88
Q

Why is very little Na+ secreted

A

Water would move with the Na and we would become dehydrated

89
Q

Endogenous Organic anions

A

Naturally produced by body
Bile salts
Dicarboxylates (CAC)

90
Q

Exogenous Organic anions

A

Not naturally from body
Benzoate, salicylate, saccharine

91
Q

Organic Anion Transporters (OATs)

A

Non-specific transporters
Tertiary active transport
Move OAs from blood to urine

92
Q

Excretion

A

Out of body
E = filt - reabs + secretion

93
Q

Substances NOT normal in urine

A

Glucose
AAs
Useful metabolites

94
Q

Substances normally found in urine

A

Water
Ions (include H+)
Urea
Organic wastes and anions

95
Q

Renal clearance

A

If a substance is freely filtered (100%) and neither reabsorbed nor secreted then it can be used to estimate GFR
ex: Creatinine or Inulin

96
Q

Micturition

A

Peeing (voiding)
Filtrate leave collecting duct, can no longer be modified

97
Q

Bladder

A

Layers of smooth muscle
Holds ~ 500 mL
Stretch receptors in walls to give urge to pee

98
Q

2 bladder sphincters

A

Internal sphincter (involuntary control)
External sphincter (skeletal muscle so controlled voluntarily)

99
Q

Process of Micturition

A

Stretch receptors fire
Parasymph neurons fire, motor neuron keeping external contracted stop firing
Smooth muscle contracts, internal sphincter pulled open
*See diagram

100
Q

Elements in the fluid we consume

A

Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Hydrogen, Bicarbonate

101
Q

Physiological mechanisms to maintain mass balance

A

Kidneys remove water and ions
Water and ions lost in feces and sweat
Excrete water and CO2 through breathing

102
Q

Behavioral mechanisms to maintain mass balance

A

Thirst drive via osmolarity receptors in hypothalamus
Salt appetite

103
Q

Why is the regulation of ECF critical to cells?

A

Depending on enviro, the cell will be hyper or hypo tonic and gain or lose water

104
Q

Water intake

A

Food and drink 2.2 L/day
metabolic reactions 0.3 L/day

105
Q

Water loss

A

Urine (1.5 L/day)
Feces (0.1 L/day)
Insensible (0.9 L/day)- skin and lungs

106
Q

Conditions that impact water balance

A

Excessive sweating, diarrhea, abnormal water intake, blood loss, composition of fluid matters

107
Q

Why is excessive water intake a problem

A

Hypotonic ECF causes cells to fill and burst, effects nervous system due to decrease plasma osmolarity messing up retsing Vm

108
Q

Role of kidneys

A

Kidneys can remove excess water but cannon replenish lost water, only conserve it

109
Q

Loop of Henle in urine regulation

A

Descending loop permeable to water, ascending to solutes
Movement is passively regulated
Diagram slide 15

110
Q

Collecting duct in urine regulation

A

Water and solutes movement is actively regulated by hormones
Water reabsorption is dependent on conc. of renal medulla interstitium
Diagram slide 15

111
Q

Countercurrent multipliers

A

Renal medulla ECF is hyperosmotic
Loop of Henle and vasa recta (BV) move in opposite direction
Ends in dilute urine (hyposmotic)
SEE SLIDE 19!

112
Q

Transporters in countercurrent multiplier

A

NKCC (Sodium, potassium, Cl cotransporter)
KCl transporter
Leak channels

113
Q

vasa recta

A

Absorbs water leaving LoH
Prevents edema, high osmolarity of medullary intersitium is needed for water to move out of CD

114
Q

Urea

A

Contributes to medullary interstitium, gets transported out of LoH and CD

115
Q

Vasopressin

A

Regulates aquaporin expression in CD
More water reabsorbed (urine concentrated) when vasopressin is present
Anti-diuretic
Conserve water

116
Q

3 factors that stimulate vasopressin release

A

High plasma osmolarity-
[plasma] high, hypothalmus release VP due to osmoreceptors
Blood volume- Dec. BV –> increase VP
Blood pressure- Dec. BP –> increase VP

117
Q

Vasopressin at night

A

Follows a circadian rhythm pattern which is good because that means we conserve water and don’t urinate at night

A&P lecture 2 (4 decks)

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