Exam #3 Flashcards

Question

Which of the following factors are NOT characterized as a determinant of the Prisoner’s Dilemma strategy?

Answer 1

Commons dilemma

Answer 2

Competitor

Answer 3

Equity norm

Answer 4

Public goods dilemma

Answer 5

We can think of the prisoner’s dilemma as a conflict over resources, since it is typically framed as competition and cooperation for monetary incentives.

Answer 6

Another class of social dilemmas where conflict occurs over resources, are called "commons dilemmas". The name comes from the economic theory describing the “tragedy of the commons.” The commons is a public and unregulated resource. For example, the commons is often thought of as a public field that all the local farmers are permitted to use so that their sheep can graze. In order to keep the resource plentiful, it is important that it not be over-grazed. So each farmer needs to limit their use of the commons.

Answer 7

(EX): A group of students who completed a school project and earned an A. One member of the group did little to contribute to that project and when the teacher asks "how did you come up with such a creative project?", that one member abruptly responds, "it was my idea" - that member is taking more credit (responsibility) than he/she should really take.

Answer 8

-Whether the group succeeds or fails. -The responsibility taken by other members: low, moderate, or high DV: how much the participant likes the other members.

Answer 9

Individuals may start a group discussion unsure of their position, but over time their certainty increases, and can cause conflict to escalate. -Confirmation bias -Motivation to appear consistent -Desire to “win” the discussion -Cognitive dissonance (EX): "I should be a good eater". but I can eat fast food because I run all the time.

Answer 10

Paid participants to make birthday cards using paper, colored markers, and ribbons. Participants efforts were frustrated by a confederate who deliberately hoarded materials

Answer 11

Participants given $4.00 and asked to imagine themselves as the owner of one of two trucking companies (Acme or Bolt) that carried merchandise. Each time their truck reaches the destination on the opposite side of the board, they earn 60 cents, minus operating costs (1 cent for each second taken by the trip).

Answer 12

Participants given $4.00 and asked to imagine themselves as the owner of one of two trucking companies (Acme or Bolt) that carried merchandise. Each time their truck reaches the destination on the opposite side of the board, they earn 60 cents, minus operating costs (1 cent for each second taken by the trip).

Answer 13

*Three conditions 1.) The unilateral-threat condition: Only ACME has gate access to main road. 2.) The bilateral-threat condition: both sides have gate access 3.) Control condition: No gates

Answer 14

Rough reciprocity – reciprocate attacks with more intense counterattacks. Coalition building. (ex): Multiple members team-up against certain others. “us vs. them” mentality “to win” lose sight of real goal/objective. Negative emotions replace logical discussion. (Anger, anxiety, frustration)

Answer 15

A reciprocal communication process whereby two or more parties to a dispute examine specific issues, explain their positions, and exchange offers and counter-offers to reach agreement or achieve mutually beneficial outcomes

Answer 16

*Distributive Negotiations: Both parties retain a competitive orientation and take turns making small concessions until some equally dissatisfying middle ground is reached. (EX): -Basic: each party tries be “the winner” -Middle ground often doesn’t solve problem or help anyone -Middle ground = equally dissatisfying bc both won’t think they “lost” *Integrative Negotiations: Individuals work to achieve cooperative outcomes that benefit both sides = more difficult because easy to become competitive. Important: see opponent as “cooperative partner” not competitor. This strategy reduces mutual dissatisfaction & worse outcomes.

Answer 17

There was a wealthy man who had 3 sons. In his will, he determined that… -His oldest son should get 1/2 of his estate -His second born son should inherit 1/3 of his estate -His youngest son should inherit 1/9 of his estate -His estate was 17 camels… -His oldest son should get 1/2 of his estate = 8.5 camels -His second born son should inherit 1/3 of his estate = 5.67 camels -His youngest son should inherit 1/9 of his estate = 1.89 camels Carrying out their father’s wishes, will require killing some of the camels??

Answer 18

The men consult a wise philosopher… “Before solving your problem, let me give you a gift. I am impressed by your eagerness to honor the will of your father, so I will give you one more camel out of my own possession.” -His oldest son should get 1/2 of his estate = 9 camels -His second born son should inherit 1/3 of his estate = 6 camels -His youngest son should inherit 1/9 of his estate = 2 camels Now the camels can be easily divided amongst the brothers, and there is one left over to return to the philosopher!

Answer 19

A method of responding in a social dilemma in which the party begins with a cooperative response and then matches his or her responses to those that are given by the other party. *Prevent conflict strategy = T4T strategy. *Can use in social dilemma games where choices = cooperate/compete = begin w ‘cooperate’, then do whatever your partner does for rest of game.

Answer 20

-It is NICE: The individual first signals a willingness to cooperate. -It is CLEAR: Easy to understand how the choices are being determined. -It is PROVOCABLE: The approach sends a clear message that competitive choices on the part of the other will not be tolerated. -It is FORGIVING: Cooperation is always reciprocated.

Answer 21

Often define culture to specific groups. American, Asian, southern cultures = people exist within shared context. *Culture can refer to any kind of information that is acquired from members of one’s species through social learning that is capable of affecting an individual’s behaviors.

Answer 22

Angry than amused; higher levels cortisol and testosterone

Answer 23

Individualism

Answer 24

Individualistic

Answer 25

Interdependent; independent

Answer 26

Southern herders were most likely to develop and protect their “tough” (i.e., aggressive) reputation to protect livestock.

Answer 27

Compared to a "Working Group"

Answer 28

The tendency to value the personal self and to see the self as separate from other people.

Answer 29

The tendency to focus on developing harmonious social relationships with others, with particular importance placed upon the awareness of one’s social roles.

Answer 30

“The squeaky wheel gets the grease” = "If you want something, go for it". * Independent cultures = more flexible structure

Answer 31

“The nail that stands out gets pounded down” = “Punishment for putting self in front of group” * Interdependent have tighter structure with strong sense of duty/responsibility to family/relationships.

Answer 32

Kim & Markus illustrated difference between 2 cultures on standing out/being unique. Approached random strangers at a San Francisco airport.

Answer 33

Individualistic societies afford an individual more freedom to choose his or her own life course. Successful people in individualistic societies may be more likely to attribute success to themselves.

Answer 34

Compared American students with mainland Chinese students

Answer 35

White Americans engaged in more self-serving biases – attributing their successes to themselves, and their failures to external circumstances. *Successful because hard work; failed because task = unfair, too difficult.

Answer 36

The mainland Chinese students engaged in more situational attributions – they were more likely to attribute their success and failures to other people or circumstances. *Successful because of luck, good teacher, easy test; failed because poor teacher, bad luck.

Answer 37

Conducted a series of field experiments measuring walking speed, work speed, and concern with clock time in countries around the world.

Answer 38

The cultural split of independence and interdependence is not black and white. Individuals in Western cultures frequently join groups and develop strong identities with those groups. Individuals in East Asian cultures have well-developed self-concepts that are sensitive to the opinions of others.

Answer 39

The Southern US has long been regarded as more violent than the North. -Hotter temperatures -Greater poverty -Culture of Honor *Prototypical example of Culture of Honor = southern USA

Answer 40

-Southern herding economies, in the absence of a central government to enforce laws, were susceptible to livestock theft. -Individuals had to be prepared to protect their property, using violence if necessary. -It would be important to cultivate a reputation for manly toughness to discourage individuals from considering cattle raiding.

Answer 41

-Southern herding economies, in the absence of a central government to enforce laws, were susceptible to livestock theft. -Individuals had to be prepared to protect their property, using violence if necessary. -It would be important to cultivate a reputation for manly toughness to discourage individuals from considering cattle raiding.

Answer 42

Participants were male students at the University of Michigan who were either from the South or Northern US (none were from Michigan). Examined whether cultural differences would predict reactions to a staged insult.

Answer 43

Argues that culture (as a process of learning information relevant to our local environment) is what has made the human species so successful. *Means: Learn culture from parents/family/friends human success as species.

Answer 44

Henrich’s “success” = humans dispersed from origin (Africa) to environments across 6 continents. Despite array ecological diversity (cold/hot, humid/dry dessert, ocean/mountains, etc.) human prevailed

Answer 45

Henrich’s “success” = humans dispersed from origin (Africa) to environments across 6 continents. Despite array ecological diversity (cold/hot, humid/dry dessert, ocean/mountains, etc.) human prevailed

Answer 46

Humans are not the only animals to have world-wide success… …But ants have achieved their success through genetic adaptations and speciation. *Means: After ants migrate to new ecology/environment that not well adapted to natural selection (NS) makes new genetic adaptations for new ecology [over years] Ants become so genetically different--> = new species.

Answer 47

Led a 19 man exploration of Australia, which had not been colonized yet. Only aboriginal hunter gatherers populated the continent.

Answer 48

The group lacked skills to hunt/fish or find fresh water. The aboriginals provided them with gifts of fish and showed them to water. Burke & Wills tried to make “nardoo cakes” from plants after observing the local women make them. They failed to prepare it properly, and poisoned themselves. Only 1 survived

Answer 49

The expedition of men failed to survive in the environments in which humans evolved. No special survival mechanisms kicked in. No general learning mechanisms saved them Yet the skills they needed were easily performed by the local adolescents! They were missing the cultural “download” of information for that ecology

Answer 50

Tested the hypothesis that what separates humans from other primates is not our general intelligence, but our social intelligence. Essentially, our ability to learn from others. Humans’ success not due to GENERAL intelligence due to SOCIAL intelligence = ability learn from others. Greatness/power of human social intelligence = unique to us/humans. *--> Explains why humans = all over world but still = same species. *Physical: Problems solved with General Intelligence. *Social: Problems solved with Social Learning.

Answer 51

Orangutans = Apes. 3 groups = Humans, Chimps, & Orangutans * All humans = 2.5 years old [to be comparable to chimps & orangutans].

Answer 52

Skill/Competence: We watch those who are successful hunters. Prestige: We watch people who are watched by others Age: We watch those who are slightly older than us. Those who survive have been successful. Sex: We watch those who are similar to us, their behavior is more useful. Language/Dialect: We watch those who speak our language, they are from the same “group” and face the same challenges.

Answer 53

Tools are hard to invent. The wheel was invented 6,000 years ago, and only in Eurasia. Once something it has been invented, it can be passed on to others and innovated upon.

Answer 54

Socially transmitted solution to an adaptive challenge in the local ecology. Cultures in tropical climates (where s are prevalent) use spices in their meat dishes. The spices are effective in killing pathogens in the meat. Knowledge is stumbled upon and passed on. Eventually, the knowledge of the function is likely to be lost, but the tradition maintained.

Answer 55

Humans have cultural adaptations for cooking food that allow us to gain more nutrition from the food with less effort and less risk of parasite transmission. Given this cultural adaptation, humans did not need as large/sharp teeth as similar non-human primates of our size.

Answer 56

Differences in Individualism versus Collectivism could be due to genetic and/or cultural adaptations to local ecology.

Answer 57

Our physiological immune system is mobilized once we are exposed to pathogens, but we also have a behavioral immune system to help prevent us from contracting a disease. Behavioral Immune System: System of mechanisms designed to detect the presence of pathogens in the immediate environment and facilitate the avoidance of those pathogens before they make contact with the body.

Answer 58

The Behavioral Immune System may respond to any cue of potential disease, such as noxious odors, swelling, and disfiguring blemishes. The presence of such cues should promote avoidant behavior to prevent contamination. System should err on the side of caution, like a smoke detector. System should also be sensitive to individual differences in susceptibility to disease.

Answer 59

Participants were either shown pictures/information about architecture (control condition) or germs and transmission of contagious disease (disease prime condition). Then they completed a personality inventory (A, E, O) and a measure of their perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD)

Answer 60

Social categorization: The process of thinking about someone as a member of a meaningful social group. Also useful and efficient, but not without its problems… *For example, when we see someone wearing a white lab coat with a stethoscope around their neck. We are likely to quickly categorize this individual as a member of the category “doctor” given the overlap of the attributes of the person with our exemplar for what a “doctor” looks like.

Answer 61

When we interact with someone new, what features of this individual are we likely to remember, if nothing else? -Gender -Age -Race

Answer 62

Participants are shown a slideshow of people from different social categories (men and women) interacting in a discussion group and then asked to identify who made each of the discussion statements. -Half are told they will be asked to recall who said what -Half are not told anything

Answer 63

Useful and efficient means of characterizing individuals. Stereotypes: Beliefs about the characteristics of social groups and the members of those groups E.g., Italians are Romantic*

Answer 64

Stereotypes are learned through direct contact with members of the categorized group, through communication with parents and peers, and exposure to media. -Widespread consensus regarding the content of stereotypes (Madon et al. 2001) -Most people know the content, even if not endorsed

Answer 65

Assessing stereotype accuracy requires three steps: 1. Assess people’s descriptive beliefs about a group (e.g., “What proportion of Asian Americans complete college?”) 2. Identify criteria that establish group characteristics (e.g., U.S. Census data on the proportion of Asian Americans who complete college) 3.. Compare beliefs to criteria. *So for example, we could ask people “what proportion of Asian Americans complete college?”

Answer 66

Problematic when we fail to see members of groups as individuals, and evaluate them solely on their group membership -Prejudice: A negative attitude toward members of a social category -Discrimination: Negative behaviors enacted against members of a social category on the basis of their membership

Answer 67

If stereotypes save us time, we should be more likely to use them when we have reduced cognitive abilities. Bodenhausen (1990) Participants asked to evaluate the degree to which a defendant is guilty of a crime (e.g. cheating on an exam). Though the evidence is inconclusive, stereotypes of the defendant “fit” the crime (e.g. student athletes are more likely to cheat).

Answer 68

Categorization of individuals on the basis of gender occurs automatically. Once categorized, stereotypes follow. The stereotype may influence our evaluations of the individual. These evaluations may lead to prejudice and discriminatory behavior. Importantly, all of these process can occur outside of our conscious awareness.

Answer 69

*MacNell and colleagues were interested in whether gender stereotypes would affect evaluations of job performance. *For example, research looking at student evaluations of their college professors reveals that women and minorities consistently receive more negative evaluations from students than do White men. But, because this is not an experiment, we can’t know if this is due to stereotypes and prejudice, or actual differences in performance. Examined student evaluations of an online class as a function of the purported gender of the instructor. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four discussion groups for an online (anthro) class

Answer 70

Participants were instructed to pretend they were police officers chasing dangerous suspects and that they should “shoot” those with guns, but not shoot those holding other objects (e.g., a wallet, cell phone). Pictures of people’s faces paired with objects appeared at various positions on the computer screen. Participants pressed ‘A’ on the keyboard for shoot and ‘L’ to not shoot

Answer 71

Outgroup men are more likely to be mistakenly shot when unarmed. *when the targets are black men – individuals are much more likely to shoot an unarmed target.

Answer 72

Performed a simple experiment to examine the potential outcomes of categorization. Participants were asked to judge the length of six lines. *Participants were shown a set of lines of varying lengths. In one condition the lines were ordered from tallest to shortest, with no grouping, as in the top panel of the figure. In the other condition the exact same lines were shown, but lines were drawn below the lines, indicating a grouping or categorization. Tajfel and Wilkes predicted that this categorization would lead participants to see the two groups of lines as more different from each other than they were in perceived in the top panel, and perceive the lines within each group as more similar.

Answer 73

Tendency to amplify perceived between-group differences.

Answer 74

Tendency to amplify within group similarities.

Answer 75

*An example of this is the tendency for young people to assume that the elderly are all very similar to one another. Young people will recognize that their own generation contains a diverse variety of different kinds of individuals, but will readily apply a stereotype about the elderly across all members of the category. The tendency to view members of outgroups as extremely similar to each other. We apply stereotypes across all members of an outgroup, viewing them as all the same, but view members of our own group as much more variable E.g. Young people evaluate the elderly as more similar to one another than young people

Answer 76

The tendency to only seek out information that confirms our pre-existing beliefs. Confirmatory information is often better remembered than disconfirming information.

Answer 77

The tendency to respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory apart from members who confirm the stereotype. *As an example of both of these processes in action, imagine someone who is very prejudiced against Muslims and believes the stereotype that all Muslims are terrorists.

Answer 78

The outcome of behaving in accordance with one’s expectations so that those expectations come true. *As a simple example of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Imagine that you are a tourist in a small-town. You may have the expectation that “small town folks are really nice.” The self-fulfilling prophecy that your expectation will lead you to act in a way, that will eventually result in the confirmation of your expectation. Importantly, this could occur, even if, in reality, the expectation was inaccurate. So, continuing our example, if you think that small town folks are really nice, then your behavior will reflect that expectation

Answer 79

Study of 18 classrooms across 6 grade levels. Children take an IQ test – teachers think it is identifying which children will be “high bloomers”. 20% of children are randomly assigned to be “high bloomers” At the end of the year, children take another IQ test

Answer 80

The results of the study strongly supported the self-fulfilling prophecy. Kids who the teachers expected to do better actually had greater academic gains! On average, “high bloomers” had better grades, and increased their IQ scores by 4 points more than non-bloomers. The effect was particularly strong, for those kids in the younger grades. High bloomers were also judged by teachers as better behaved, friendlier, more intellectually curious, and evaluated as having a greater chance for future success.

Answer 81

The exemplar

Answer 82

Group differentiation

Answer 83

Often wrong/inaccurate and leads to problematic consequences.

Answer 84

Stereotypes are, on average, accurate.

Answer 85

Gordon Allport = 1 of most famous psychologists – intergroup bias & prejudice * In book: expressed frustration & hopelessness to solve prejudice

Answer 86

Jane Elliott conducted a naturalistic study to examine whether she could create prejudice among her students by creating a status hierarchy of groups based on eye color.

Answer 87

Boys attending a summer camp were split into two groups -Boys were not aware of one another’s presence for the first 7 days -Homogeneous sociocultural economic and educational backgrounds -All were 11 years old.

Answer 88

Researchers made certain that all interactions were as cooperative as possible in order to create cohesion within each group. -Boys worked to improve campground (e.g., swimming hole). -Norms developed within the groups (e.g., don’t cry, be tough, don’t get homesick) -Leaders emerged in each group

Answer 89

Boys are told that another group of boys had joined the camp and that they would be competing against one another. -Each team stenciled on their shirts and hats, developed group names: Eagles and Rattlers -Even without meeting the group, there was a preference for their ingroup members.

Answer 90

“THEY better not be swimming in OUR swimming hole, THEY better not be on OUR baseball diamond.” -Rattlers so possessive of baseball field put flag w rattle snake ”marking territory”

Answer 91

The camp counselors informed them that the groups would compete in a tournament of activities. -Baseball games, tug-of-war, touch football, cabin inspections, skits and songs, and a treasure hunt. -Prize: A trophy, medal for each boy, and a 4 bladed knife

Answer 92

The Rattlers won the day’s competition. -The Eagles accused them of cheating. -Ripped down the Rattler’s flag and burned it. -Upon discovery of the burned flag the next morning, a fight broke out.

Answer 93

The next day the Eagles won. They attributed their win to praying and being good. They vowed to remain good and to not “cuss” as much as the bad Rattlers. Developed a group norm encouraging prayer before contests with the Rattlers.

Answer 94

-Raided each other’s campgrounds. -Created hate messages on flags. -Incessant name-calling (communist, sissy, cry baby) -Many physical fights. -Held noses when they walked by one another. -Refused to eat together. -Made attribution errors

Answer 95

Participants are asked to estimate the number of dots on a screen for a series of trials. -Task: guess # dots -Wrote down guesses independently Then assigned in 1 of 2 groups: -Underestimators -Overestimators -not meaningful

Answer 96

Conflict between groups stems from competition for scarce resources *including food, territory, wealth, power, natural resources, and energy.

Answer 97

Scapegoat theory argues that intergroup conflict occurs when a group who has experienced frustration from some environmental hardship, such as economic decline in the country, and places blame for that hardship on the members of another group. *The name of the theory comes from Leviticus in the bible, in which the sins of a community are transferred to a goat, and then the goat is cast into the desert, ridding the community of their sins.

Answer 98

The frustrating economic decline in Germany following WWI is argued to be in part responsible for the hostility expressed toward the Jewish people. Hovland & Sears, 1940 Anti-Black bias in the South between 1882 and 1930 increased with economic declines. Indeed the price of cotton was strongly negatively associated with the number of lynchings of Black men by Whites.

Answer 99

-We desire to feel good about ourselves. -Part of our identity comes from the groups to which we belong. -Comparing our ingroups with outgroups that are less well off can raise our self-esteem. *People whose self-esteem is threatened by failure may attack members of outgroups *Students are more likely to criticize a minority student after they suffer an individual failure (Fein & Spencer, 1997)

Answer 100

-Living in groups was important for human survival. -Conflict with other groups occurs over access to resources. -Territory, food, water, mates. Sex Differences: *Men stand to gain more from competition with other groups. Greater access to resources makes them more desirable as a potential mate. *Women have a limited reproductive ceiling, making conflict with other groups a high-risk endeavor with few individual pay-offs.

Answer 101

Prediction: Selection has favored psychological traits that increase the propensity to engage in intergroup competition and the likelihood of success. -Coalitional preferences -Team based Sports -Prejudice and Discrimination -Intergroup conflict and warfare For example, men tend to prefer large social networks of same-sex friends, whereas women more strongly prefer dyadic relationships. Men’s preferences for larger social groups of other men, has been argued to reflect their evolved psychology for building and maintaining coalitions for intergroup conflict.

Answer 102

There are a variety of theories to explain why intergroup conflict is so pervasive. These theories are not mutually exclusive.

Answer 103

This is the tendency for greater competitiveness to emerge in interactions between groups, relative to interactions between individuals. *For example, the individual members of the Eagles and Rattlers acted cooperatively with one another within each group, until they knew there was another group at the camp, and then intergroup conflict quickly emerged.

Answer 104

Participants reported their interactions for a week. Indicating if they were with groups or individuals, and whether they were competitive or cooperative. Interactions between groups were more likely to be competitive than interactions involving individuals – even when excluding sports interactions

Answer 105

They had participants play a series of prisoner’s dilemma games, either as an individual playing against another individual, as a nominal group playing against another nominal group, or as a 3-person group playing against another 3-person group.

Answer 106

Individuals’ competitive behavior is less identifiable in a group and less subject to sanctions. Individuals may perceive groups as a coalition – capable of engaging in coordinated competitive action. Recall that groups with greater entitativity were perceived as more likely to engage in negative actions (Dasgupta et al., 1999). If you expect another group to compete, you are more likely to also compete.

Answer 107

This is our tendency to emphasize the differences between groups, rather than the similarities.

Answer 108

This is the tendency to assume that the members of outgroup are very similar to each other, whereas members of your own group are perceived to be more heterogeneous. This is problematic because it allows negative information about the group as a whole, such as stereotypes, to be applied to every individual in the group.

Answer 109

When we need to explain the causes of our own behavior, we are more likely to engage in a self-serving attribution bias. That is, we attribute our good behavior to our personal traits, abilities, and actions. But when engage in bad behavior, we are likely to attribute the behavior to external factors, such as unfair circumstances or bad luck.

Answer 110

The tendency for perceivers to attribute negative actions performed by members of the outgroup to dispositional qualities and positive action to situational, fluctuating circumstances.

Answer 111

Dehumanization is process by which we perceive that a group or an individual lacks humanness. EX: We avoid making eye contact with homeless people, as if they don’t exist as humans in our social world, they can be completely ignored.

Answer 112

Devaluing of individuals so intensely that the principles of morality no longer apply to them. This serves to rationalize extremely negative treatment against a dehumanized outgroup. *In other words, when we don’t consider someone human, it is much easier to justify extremely negative actions against them.

Answer 113

Gordon Allport Hypothesized that conflict between groups could be reduced with increased contact and communication between groups.

Answer 114

1.) Supportive norms endorsed by local authorities that encourage friendly, helpful, egalitarian attitudes, and condemn biased intergroup comparisons. 2.) Groups are of equal status, at least in contact setting Contact allows for personal interaction with out group members. 3.) Groups cooperate toward common goals.

Answer 115

-Contradicts out group stereotypes. -Decrease anxiety. -Changes social norms.

Answer 116

Researchers forced the boys to cooperate toward common goals, such as starting a bus to take them all to a movie, or fixing a water tank.

Answer 117

Desegregation in schools following the Brown vs Board of Education (1954) failed to promote positive contact between Black and Whites. -School authorities expressed hostility -Black students were not treated fairly -Contact was superficial -No common goals

Answer 118

A team-learning technique in which individuals of diverse backgrounds are grouped together. The group is given a goal that can only be accomplished if the individuals work together. Each individual is responsible for learning a key concept (puzzle piece) for the overall study unit, and then teaching that information to the rest of the group. (Aronson et al., 1997)

Answer 119

A model for reducing bias between groups by emphasizing an identity that is shared by both parties.

Answer 120

Black and white interviewers approached white students who were attending a football game and asked them to help out by completing a questionnaire. The interviewers also wore hats representing one of the two universities who were playing in the game. Examined whether individuals would cooperate with the interviewer more when they shared a common group identity.

Answer 121

Black interviewers received more cooperation from participants when they wore a hat signaling a common group identity.

Answer 122

Knowing the fact that at least 2 differing groups exist

Answer 123

The discontinuity effect

Answer 124

To become nasty, mean, and discriminatory.

Answer 125

A. None of these choice

Answer 126

Could occur without competition for limited resources.

Answer 127

C. All of these choices

Answer 128

Aversive racism, and black individuals were perceived as "new" in-group members

Answer 129

Evolutionary theory

Answer 130

Each individual learns a key concept for the overall task, and then must teach that concept to the rest of the group in order for the group to accomplish its task.

Answer 131

These 4 theories are not mutually exclusive (i.e., all theories simultaneously play a role explaining why intergroup conflict occurs).