Exam #3 Flashcards
Intragroup Conflict?
Disagreement or confrontation between members of the same group.
Bales & Hares, (1965)
Novel groups working on a task spent as much as 20% of their time making hostile or negative comments.
French, (1941)
Groups working on a frustrating and impossible-to-solve task, high intensity conflict overtook most groups.
(Competition & Cooperation)
Deutsch (1949a)
Created two grading systems in his college classes
Competitive?
Relative grading system in which individuals are ranked in order of performance, and some individuals must fail.
Cooperative?
Individuals worked in groups to learn the material and everyone in the group received the same grade.
(Mixed-Motive Conflict)
Prisoner’s Dilemma?
-Two prisoners are accused of a crime.
-The police believe the two worked together but only have enough evidence to convict each of a minor offense.
-The police offer a reduced sentence to whoever confesses first.
What’s The Dilemma?
The interests of the individual conflict with the interests for the group.
The best decision for the individual, regardless of what their partner does, is to defect:
If B defects, then A should defect too so they get 8 years instead of 20.
If B cooperates, then A should defect so they get no time, instead of 6 months.
However, the group outcome is better if both cooperate (6 months each) than if they both defect (8 years).
Social Values Orientation?
The dispositional tendency to respond to conflict settings in a particular way.
Competitor?
Strives to maximize own outcomes and minimize others’ outcomes; views disagreements as win—lose situations.
*The most important thing for them is to win, that is, to perform better than everyone else.
Cooperator?
Strives to maximize joint outcomes; seeks win—win solutions to disagreements.
-Others cooperation is positively related to their own cooperativeness
*They want to do well themselves, but they also want others to do well.
Individualist?
Strives to maximize own outcomes only; seek only to achieve their own goals.
-Others cooperation is not associated with their own cooperativeness
*These individuals simply do not consider the outcomes of others, they focus purely on maximizing their own rewards.
Conflict Over Resources?
Individuals extract needed resources from their groups, but too much selfishness can lead to conflict.
Edney (1979)
Pool of resources available to group of players. Each can take as many coins as they wish
Resources are doubled every 10s
65% of groups never got to the first replenishment!
Public Goods Dilemmas?
A social dilemma where individuals can choose not to contribute any resources to support a public good, but still enjoy the benefits of the good.
(EX): Most people use Wikipedia on a semi-regular basis, but very few people donate to help sustain the public good it provides
*So you’re taking the resource but not giving back to sustain it.
Equity Norm?
Individuals should receive goods based on their contributions, those who contribute more, get more.
(EX): A roommate that pays the most amount of rent should be getting the bigger room.
Equality Norm?
All group members, irrespective of their input, should be given an equal share of the good.
(EX): Healthcare.
Power Norm?
Those with the most power/status should be given the most.
(EX): For example, the leader of a work-group may get the best office with the best view, and the best computer.
Need Norm?
Resources should be allocated to those with the greatest need first
(EX): People with the most severe condition in the ER are usually seen first.
Sociocentric?
Group-serving (sociocentric): The entire group is praised for success. External forces are blamed for failures.
Egocentric?
Self-serving (egocentric): Individuals take undue personal credit for success and blame one another for the group’s misfortunes.
Substantive Conflict?
Disagreements over issues that are relevant to the group’s recognized goals.
-Good to the extent that results in increased creativity and problem solving
Procedural Conflict?
Disagreement over the methods the group should use to complete its basic tasks
(EX): The professor will say “We are getting a 20 minute break”. without having the class vote.
Conflict over Liking
Morrill’s (1995) study of corporate executives?
Found 40% of disputes were rooted in the dislike of one another.
Disputants complained about others’:
-Moral values
-Treatment of their spouses
-Politics
-Dress at work and social gatherings
-Hobbies and recreational activities
-Personality traits
Which of the following factors are NOT characterized as a determinant of the Prisoner’s Dilemma strategy?
Age
Individual family members using up more data than they originally agreed on is an example of which type of dilemma?
Commons dilemma
This social values orientation involves maximizing your own outcomes and minimizing others’ outcomes, as well as viewing disagreements as “win-lose situations.”
Competitor
One of three roommates living at a rental hom1e pays more rent than the other two; thus, the two roommates let that roommate keep the biggest room in the home. This is an example of which fairness dilemma norm?
Equity norm
Using Wikipedia often but not donating any money to it when the website requests it from its users is an example of the __ dilemma.
Public goods dilemma
Conflict Over Resources?
We can think of the prisoner’s dilemma as a conflict over resources, since it is typically framed as competition and cooperation for monetary incentives.
Commons dilemmas?
Another class of social dilemmas where conflict occurs over resources, are called “commons dilemmas”. The name comes from the economic theory describing the “tragedy of the commons.” The commons is a public and unregulated resource. For example, the commons is often thought of as a public field that all the local farmers are permitted to use so that their sheep can graze. In order to keep the resource plentiful, it is important that it not be over-grazed. So each farmer needs to limit their use of the commons.
Responsibility Dilemma’s?
(EX): A group of students who completed a school project and earned an A. One member of the group did little to contribute to that project and when the teacher asks “how did you come up with such a creative project?”, that one member abruptly responds, “it was my idea” - that member is taking more credit (responsibility) than he/she should really take.
Forsyth, Berger, & Mitchell (1981)?
-Whether the group succeeds or fails.
-The responsibility taken by other members: low, moderate, or high
DV: how much the participant likes the other members.
Conflict Escalation?
Individuals may start a group discussion unsure of their position, but over time their certainty increases, and can cause conflict to escalate.
-Confirmation bias
-Motivation to appear consistent
-Desire to “win” the discussion
-Cognitive dissonance
(EX): “I should be a good eater”.
but I can eat fast food because I run all the time.
Mikolic, Parker, & Pruitt (1997)?
Paid participants to make birthday cards using paper, colored markers, and ribbons. Participants efforts were frustrated by a confederate who deliberately hoarded materials
The Trucking Game
Deutsch & Krauss, 1960?
Participants given $4.00 and asked to imagine themselves as the owner of one of two trucking companies (Acme or Bolt) that carried merchandise.
Each time their truck reaches the destination on the opposite side of the board, they earn 60 cents, minus operating costs (1 cent for each second taken by the trip).
The Trucking Game
Deutsch & Krauss, 1960?
Participants given $4.00 and asked to imagine themselves as the owner of one of two trucking companies (Acme or Bolt) that carried merchandise.
Each time their truck reaches the destination on the opposite side of the board, they earn 60 cents, minus operating costs (1 cent for each second taken by the trip).
The Trucking Game?
*Three conditions
1.) The unilateral-threat condition: Only ACME has gate access to main road.
2.) The bilateral-threat condition: both sides have gate access
3.) Control condition: No gates
Other Sources of Escalation?
Rough reciprocity – reciprocate attacks with more intense counterattacks.
Coalition building. (ex): Multiple members team-up against certain others.
“us vs. them” mentality “to win” lose sight of real goal/objective.
Negative emotions replace logical discussion.
(Anger, anxiety, frustration)
Negotiation?
A reciprocal communication process whereby two or more parties to a dispute examine specific issues, explain their positions, and exchange offers and counter-offers to reach agreement or achieve mutually beneficial outcomes
Two WAYS to approach Negotiation?
*Distributive Negotiations: Both parties retain a competitive orientation and take turns making small concessions until some equally dissatisfying middle ground is reached.
(EX):
-Basic: each party tries be “the winner”
-Middle ground often doesn’t solve problem or help anyone
-Middle ground = equally dissatisfying bc both won’t think they “lost”
*Integrative Negotiations: Individuals work to achieve cooperative outcomes that benefit both sides
= more difficult because easy to become competitive.
Important: see opponent as “cooperative partner” not competitor.
This strategy reduces mutual dissatisfaction & worse outcomes.
A difficult problem…
There was a wealthy man who had 3 sons.
In his will, he determined that…
-His oldest son should get 1/2 of his estate
-His second born son should inherit 1/3 of his estate
-His youngest son should inherit 1/9 of his estate
-His estate was 17 camels…
-His oldest son should get 1/2 of his estate = 8.5 camels
-His second born son should inherit 1/3 of his estate = 5.67 camels
-His youngest son should inherit 1/9 of his estate = 1.89 camels
Carrying out their father’s wishes, will require killing some of the camels??
An Integrative Solution…
The men consult a wise philosopher…
“Before solving your problem, let me give you a gift. I am impressed by your eagerness to honor the will of your father, so I will give you one more camel out of my own possession.”
-His oldest son should get 1/2 of his estate = 9 camels
-His second born son should inherit 1/3 of his estate = 6 camels
-His youngest son should inherit 1/9 of his estate = 2 camels
Now the camels can be easily divided amongst the brothers, and there is one left over to return to the philosopher!
The Tit-for-Tat Strategy?
A method of responding in a social dilemma in which the party begins with a cooperative response and then matches his or her responses to those that are given by the other party.
*Prevent conflict strategy = T4T strategy.
*Can use in social dilemma games where choices = cooperate/compete
= begin w ‘cooperate’, then do whatever your partner does for rest of game.
The tit-for-tat strategy is effective because:
-It is NICE: The individual first signals a willingness to cooperate.
-It is CLEAR: Easy to understand how the choices are being determined.
-It is PROVOCABLE: The approach sends a clear message that competitive choices on the part of the other will not be tolerated.
-It is FORGIVING: Cooperation is always reciprocated.
Culture?
Often define culture to specific groups.
American, Asian, southern cultures = people exist within shared context.
*Culture can refer to any kind of information that is acquired from members of one’s species through social learning that is capable of affecting an individual’s behaviors.
Comparing Southern to Northern students, Cohen et al. (1996) found that Southern students were more ______ and had ______, after being verbally insulted by the confederate.
Angry than amused; higher levels cortisol and testosterone
Diener et al. (2009) studied the difference in subjective well-being between individualistic and collectivistic concluded that subjective well-being (i.e., happiness) was positively associated with ___.
Individualism
Individuals from __ cultures are more likely to engage in self-serving biases.
Individualistic
___ cultures are more likely to make situational attributions to an individual’s behavior, whereas ___ cultures are more likely to make personal attributions to an individual’s behavior.
Interdependent; independent
Which of the following explanations was discussed as being the origin for the difference in
between American Northerners and American Southerners?
Southern herders were most likely to develop and protect their “tough” (i.e., aggressive) reputation to protect livestock.
Cultural Groups?
Compared to a “Working Group”
Independent Cultures (Western) United States, Canada, Europe, Australia
Characterized by Individualism
The tendency to value the personal self and to see the self as separate from other people.
Interdependent Cultures (East Asian) China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, India
Characterized by Collectivism
The tendency to focus on developing harmonious social relationships with others, with particular importance placed upon the awareness of one’s social roles.
Independent?
“The squeaky wheel gets the grease”
= “If you want something, go for it”.
- Independent cultures = more flexible structure
Interdependent?
“The nail that stands out gets pounded down” = “Punishment for putting self in front of group”
- Interdependent have tighter structure with strong sense of duty/responsibility to family/relationships.
Kim & Markus (1999)?
Kim & Markus illustrated difference between 2 cultures on standing out/being unique.
Approached random strangers at a San Francisco airport.
Diener et al., 2009?
Individualistic societies afford an individual more freedom to choose his or her own life course.
Successful people in individualistic societies may be more likely to attribute success to themselves.
Lee & Seligman (1997)?
Compared American students with mainland Chinese students
Self-serving biases?
White Americans engaged in more self-serving biases – attributing their successes to themselves, and their failures to external circumstances.
*Successful because hard work; failed because task = unfair, too difficult.
Situational attributions ?
The mainland Chinese students engaged in more situational attributions – they were more likely to attribute their success and failures to other people or circumstances.
*Successful because of luck, good teacher, easy test; failed because poor teacher, bad luck.
Levine & Norenzeyan (1999)?
Conducted a series of field experiments measuring walking speed, work speed, and concern with clock time in countries around the world.
Balancing the Two Orientations?
The cultural split of independence and interdependence is not black and white.
Individuals in Western cultures frequently join groups and develop strong identities with those groups.
Individuals in East Asian cultures have well-developed self-concepts that are sensitive to the opinions of others.
Culture of Honor?
The Southern US has long been regarded as more violent than the North.
-Hotter temperatures
-Greater poverty
-Culture of Honor
*Prototypical example of Culture of Honor = southern USA
