Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
The 2 dimensions of leadership are…
A
Task & Relational Leadership
2
Q
In the EEA (where humans were primarily hunter-gatherers), the leadership style for humans was likely…
A
Egalitarian/Democratic without a “centralized” leader
3
Q
Which of the following is NOT a relatively common characteristic of “first movers”?
A
Determination
4
Q
The base of power that is based on identification with the power-holder is ___.
A
Referent power
5
Q
In real-world organizational settings, ___ tend to exhibit both relationship and task leadership, whereas, ___ tend to exhibit only task leadership.
A
Women; Men
6
Q
What is Leadership?
A
Building a team and guiding victory
7
Q
Leadership in Social Animals?
A
Humans are NOT the only species with leadership.
Insects foraging patterns, fish schools, birds flying patterns, etc.
8
Q
Life in the EEA
(Environment of evolutionary adaptedness)
A
Nomadic Hunter-Gatherers
*Environmental posed many challenges.
-Predators, intergroup, conflict, intragroup conflict, access to shelter, ability to find food & water.
9
Q
Bay of Pigs?
A
Failed military invasion of Cuba (1961)
bay of pigs = intriguing because it is characterized by “intelligent individuals making terrible decisions”
Something gone wrong in group decision-making process.
10
Q
GroupThink?
A
A process that occurs when a group makes poor decisions as a result of flawed group process and strong conformity pressures.
11
Q
Conformity Pressure?
A
While pressures to conform are present in nearly every group, in groupthink groups, these pressures are extremely powerful.
12
Q
Bay of Pigs Committee:
A
In the meetings of the Bay of Pigs advisory committee President Kennedy sometimes demanded that the group members give a voice vote regarding their individual opinions before the group actually discussed the pros and cons of a new idea. Often, Kennedy would vote first.
13
Q
Self-Censorship?
A
Group members, in the face of the strong norm against criticism, keep a tight rein on their own negative thoughts
14
Q
Mind-guards?
A
Self- or leader-appointed individuals whose job it is to help quash dissent and to increase conformity to the leader’s opinions. They may also place pressure on other group members to keep quiet.
15
Q
Apparent Unanimity/Pluralistic Ignorance?
A
Because there is typically early agreement on a decision, all group members imagine that the lack of critical discussion implies that they are the only person questioning the decision.
16
Q
Schlesinger
A
He describes the Bay of Pigs cabinet meetings as a “curious atmosphere of assumed consensus.” Each person wrongly concluded that everyone else liked the plan.
17
Q
Illusions of invulnerability?
A
Feelings of confidence run extremely high, members imagine their decision is infallible and that they are incapable of making errors in judgment.
18
Q
Which team below is most susceptible to groupthink?
A
Team A who has high group cohesion
19
Q
The cooperation of multiple agents to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate parts is called…
A
Group synergy
20
Q
Johnny and his group of friends disagree so strongly with another group’s political beliefs that they go out of their way to avoid any content (e.g., social media posts) that contradicts theirs. This leads them to wrongly believe that their opinions and judgments on political matters are infallible (i.e., error-free). Johnny and his group are expressing the symptom of…
A
Illusions of invulnerability
21
Q
The OU Grizzlies basketball team has the task to score as many points as they possibly can by the end of the game. This type of task is a ____ task.
A
Maximizing
22
Q
Members from group x each have valuable pieces of information to help the group accomplish its goals that the rest of the group doesn’t know, but they fail to share the information with the group. Group x is showing the symptom of…
A
Self-censorship
23
Q
Illusions of Morality
A
The morality of the decision is not questioned. A presumption is made that, since the group generated the solution, it must be moral.
24
Q
Biased perception of the out-group?
A
Negatively distorted view of the out-group.
Castro was described as a weak leader, an evil communist, and a man too stupid to realize that his country was about to be attacked.
25
Defective Decision Making Strategies?
Group tends to construe the decision in overly simplistic terms
26
Maximizing?
A task that involves performance that is measured by how rapidly the group works, or how much of a product they are able to make
27
Intellective?
Tasks that involve the ability of the group to make a decision or a judgment
28
Criterion?
Tasks in which there is clearly a correct answer to the problem
29
Judgmental?
Tasks in which there is no clearly correct answer to the problem
30
Cohesiveness?
The emotional attachment that group members have with the members of the group.
31
Isolation?
Groups that close themselves off to outsiders are more likely to make extreme decisions. Prevents them from obtaining new and potentially contradictory information.
32
Time Pressure & Stress?
Having pressure placed upon you to perform enhances the chances that the positive aspects of what you intend to do are emphasized and the negative aspects are ignored.
33
Style of Leadership?
Strong and Directive leaders are especially bad. If the leader makes her/his opinion clear at the outset, many see little use in challenging it.
Authoritarian (Autocratic), Participative (Democratic) and Delegative (Laissez-Faire).
34
Causes of Groupthink?
-Cohesiveness
-Isolation
-Time Pressure & Stress
-Strong/Directive Leadership
35
Group Polarization?
Judgments made after group discussion will be more extreme in the same direction as the average of individual judgments made prior to discussion.
36
Myers and Kaplan (1976)?
Mock juries were asked to assess guilt in felony traffic cases.
In one condition evidence given was strong and the majority initially (before discussion) favored conviction.
In the other condition the evidence was weak and the majority initially (before discussion) favored acquittal.
37
Vinokur & Burnstein (1978)?
6-person groups asked to discuss a decision about whether an individual should make a risky or cautious decision.
3 initially favor a risky decision
3 initially favor a cautious decision
38
Task Divisibility?
A task in which work CAN be divided among individuals.
Unitary Tasks cannot be divided and have to be completed all at once.
(EX): Building a car on an assembly line or painting a house is a divisible task, because each of the group members working on the job can do a separate part of the job at the same time.
39
Type of Output Desired?
Maximizing Tasks: Task in which performance is measured by how rapidly the group works or by how much of a product they are able to make.
(EX): How many computer chips are manufactured on an assembly line, how many creative ideas are generated by a brainstorming group, how fast a construction crew can build a house.
Intellective Tasks: Task in which the ability of a group to make a decision or a judgment is assessed.
(EX): Math problem
40
Compensatory?
The group product is the average of the individual judgments
*Averaging each members best guess as to how many beans are in a jar
41
Ricky and Lucy, together, are estimating how much a particular new car is. If they guess correctly or closest to the correct answer, they win the car. Ricky thinks $2,500 but Lucy thinks $1,500. They average their guesses and decide to guess $2,000. Which type of social combination process tasks are they utilizing?
Compensatory
42
Additive tasks?
Individual inputs are added together to create a group performance score.
*Pulling a rope, shoveling snow, brainstormed ideas
(EX): A five-person team pulling together on a rope.
43
Disjunctive?
A task in which the group’s performance is determined by its BEST member.
44
Conjunctive?
A task in which the group’s performance is determined by its WORST member.
(EX): A group of mountain climbers roped together, where a single member who falls will bring disaster to all
45
Task Clarity
Criterion: Task in which there IS an objectively correct answer to the problem
(EX): Math problem, logic problem
-Eureka task: When the answer is obviously correct upon seeing it
-Judgmental: Tasks in which there is no clearly correct answer to the problem that is being posed.
(EX): Deciding the innocence or guilt of a person as a jury
46
How do we predict group performance?
Actual productivity = Potential productivity – process loss + process gain
Example: Rope pulling task with 4 group members
Group Process: The events that occur while the group is working together on the task.
*Process Gain: When the outcome of the group performance is more than would be expected on the basis of the member characteristics.
*Process Loss: When the outcome of the group performance is less than would be expected on the basis of the member characteristics.
47
Nominal Group?
A group of individuals who work as individuals but who are considered a group by the researchers.
(EX): A variation of brainstorming where individuals come up with ideas on their own rather than as a group. Once different ideas are established, they are evaluated, ranked, and agreed upon collectively.
48
Social Facilitation?
In the presence of others, participants are faster/better at:
Word identification tasks
Writing argument rebuttals
Solving multiplication problems
Jogging
Shooting pool
Lifting weights
Math problems
Computer problems
(EX): A musician/actor/performer who becomes energized by having an audience and does a better performance.
49
Social Inhibition?
Process losses on the performance of maximizing tasks that are caused by the influence of others.
*Many psychologists also define social inhibition as the tendency to “reduce” your behavior around people versus when you are alone.
50
Zajonc's Drive Theory?
Argued that both facilitation and inhibition occur because we are excited and aroused by the MERE presence of our species mates.
Because we are more physically excited, we TRY harder. In other words, we are in a heightened state of drive (Spence, 1956).
*This heightened drive increases the probability that the organisms’ dominant response will occur.
(EX): For instance, imagine walking down the street late at night when you see a dark shadow approaching you. You will likely prepare yourself for this unexpected encounter.
51
cording to basic social facilitation, Susie plays piano better (i.e., makes fewer mistakes) when she is playing in the presence of others, compared to playing __.
Alone
52
Jimmy was just hired for a new office job that he is not trained in yet. On the first day, he is surrounded by multiple coworkers while he performs his tasks and makes many errors. Making more errors on his first day is Jimmy’s __.
Dominant Response
53
What are the two primary theories that have been proposed to explain social facilitation?
Drive Theory & Evaluation Apprehension Theory
54
Which of the following task types is NOT one of the four tasks of the Social Combination Process?
Maximizing
55
Dominant Response?
The action an individual is most likely to emit in a given situation. May be due to training, habit, personal preference or innate factors.
56
Milgram (1974)?
Interest in obedience stemmed from a desire to understand how Hitler was able to orchestrate the killing of 6 million Jewish people.
*Method
Participants recruited for a “memory” experiment at Yale University
Run in groups of two, but one is a confederate
Participant is “randomly” assigned to be a teacher, and the confederate a learner
Participant task is to punish the learner for each memory mistake by administering an electric shock of increasing voltage
57
Egalitarian society?
No formal leader.
* All are considered equal, regardless of gender, race, religion, or age.
58
THOSE WHO RECOGNIZE THE NEED TO MOVE.
Intelligence
Expertise
Wisdom (age)
Conscientiousness
59
THOSE WHO CAN GET OTHERS TO FOLLOW.
Social intelligence
Self-monitoring
Benevolent (Having a desire to do good).
Trustworthy
60
THOSE WHO FIT THE PLEISTOCENE PROTOTYPE.
Tall
Formidable
Male
61
MONOPOLY ON LEADERSHIP.
-Men and women express preferences for male leaders
-Women receive lower evaluations and fewer promotions even when actual performance and behaviors are held constant
-Across 40 countries, only 20-30% of governmental, legislative, and managerial positions are held by women.
-Only 24 of the Fortune 500 company CEOs are women (4.8%)
62
Task Leadership?
Focus is on the group’s work and it’s goals. Promoting task completion; regulating behavior, monitoring communication, and reducing goal ambiguity.
63
Relationship Leadership?
Focus is on the interpersonal relations within the group. Maintaining and enhancing positive interpersonal relations in the group; friendliness; mutual trust, openness, recognizing performance
64
Meta-analysis of Sex Differences in Leadership styles (Eagly & Johnson, 1990)
-In lab studies, women perform more relationship oriented behaviors than men, and describe themselves as more relationship-oriented.
65
In real-world organization settings… (Stratham, 1987)
Women tend to exhibit both relationship and task oriented leadership, whereas men tend to exhibit only task leadership
66
Role Incongruity?
Stereotypes of women emphasize feminine traits, but the stereotype of a leader emphasizes masculine traits.
67
Catch-22?
Women are encouraged to use task-oriented leadership, but are denigrated for not being “lady-like” when they do.
68
Lippitt, & White (1943)
Interested in the effectiveness of leadership styles.
Examined 10-11 year olds in the presence of confederates playing the role of a leader for an after-school club:
*Democratic leader: Discussed proposed activities, kids made own decisions
*Authoritarian leader: Took no input, emphasized authority, assigned projects
*Laissez-faire leader: Unsupervised
69
Coordination Loss
Process loss due to the difficulty of coordinating the performance of the individuals
Increases with group size because it is more difficult to coordinate
70
Motivation Loss
Process loss due to the tendency of individuals to reduce their effort when they are in groups.
Social Loafing: The reduction in motivation and effort that occurs when individuals work together on a group task
71
Process Gains in groups?
Social Compensation: When the low skills/abilities of other group members must be compensated for (if success is highly valued)
Intergroup Competition
(EX): When individuals work harder and expend more effort in a group setting.
Kohler Effect: When the task is conjunctive (determined by the performance of the worst member)
72
It could happen to you… (Milgram 1974)
*Real World Applications
-WWII and the Holocaust
-Captainitis = crew fail to notice pilot made mistake despite training not not on “lookout”
-Nurses following through on doctors’ orders
73
Weapons of Influence (Authority)
People adhere to directives from authority figures
74
Weapons of Influence (Social Validation)
People follow the consensus of large groups
*For example, most people don't have to be directed to say hello or to smile when they see someone, but they do it anyway.
75
Weapons of Influence (Scarcity)
People find objects and opportunities more attractive when they are scarce
76
Weapons of Influence (Reciprocity)
People are more likely to comply when it reciprocates a previous favor bestowed on us
*For example, when a stranger holds a door open for us, we thank them.
77
Weapons of Influence (Liking/Friendship)
People more likely to comply with requests from people they know and/or like
78
Weapons of Influence (Commitment/Consistency)
People are more likely to comply if it is consistent with a previous commitment. We want to act in ways that are consistent with our self-image.
79
Cognitive Dissonance?
The unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one’s important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.
Example: Smoking: Many people smoke even though they know it is harmful to their health. ...
80
Reducing Dissonance?
*Remove a dissonant element
-Stop smoking; Stop viewing yourself as a healthy person
-Reduce the weighting of dissonant elements
Smoke less; Convince yourself that smoking isn’t that bad for you
-Add consonant elements
-Eat healthy, join a gym, stop drinking
Increase the weighting of consonant elements
-Convince yourself that diet and exercise are more important to overall health than whether you smoke
81
Pluralistic Ignorance?
Pluralistic Ignorance is when a group of individuals all have the same attitude towards some proposition or norm, all act contrary to this attitude, and all wrongly believe that everyone else in the group has a certain conflicting attitude to the proposition or norm
*Professor says lecture something confusing and everyone = confused
No one says anything professor continues after asked “does this make sense” as usual.
An example of pluralistic ignorance includes not speaking up when a friend cheats on his math test because you incorrectly think that the rest of your friends believe cheating is okay, even though you personally believe that cheating is wrong.
82
Dark Triad (Psychopathy)
*Primary
Selfishness, callousness, emotional coldness, superficial charm, chronic lying, lack of remorse (e.g., Jakobwitz & Egan, 2006)
*Secondary
Antisocial lifestyle, impulsivity, criminal behaviors
(e.g., Levenson, Kiehl, & Fitzpatrick, 1995)
83
Dark Triad (Machiavellianism)
Cynical world view, utility over morality, lack of emotion and empathy, interpersonal manipulation (Christie & Geis, 1970)
*Manipulating others in order to reach their goals.
84
Dark Triad (Narcissism)
Narcissism includes an inflated view of self; fantasies of control, success, and admiration; and a desire to have this self-love reinforced by others
85
Dark Triad in the Work Place
O’Boyle et al. (2012) – Meta-analysis
Examined self-report measures of Dark Triad Scores in relation to:
*Objective job performance (e.g. “what were your sales for this quarter?”)
*Counterproductive workplace behaviors (e.g. number of complaints filed against employee, number of unexcused absences)
86
Social Power?
Ability of one individual to create behavioral or opinion changes in another individual.
87
BASES OF POWER (Reward Power)
Power based on ability to provide rewards and positive outcomes.
88
BASES OF POWER (Coercive Power)
*Power based on ability to punish
terrorists
bully using physical strength
employers threatening loss of pay
Friends insulting/humiliating 1 another
Boss shouting angrily at employee
Most ppl use this when no alternative available
89
BASES OF POWER (Legitimate Power)
Power based on group acceptance.
-security personnel at airport giving demands,
-drill sergeant ordering attention,
-professor waiting for class to pay attention, minister interpreting gospel – all = powerful bc granted right to command
90
BASES OF POWER (Referent Power)
Power based on identification with power-holder.
*Ppl w this power = best liked, often charismatic
Ppl accept their power bc they want to please power-holder
91
BASES OF POWER (Expert Power)
Power based on expertise or superior skills.
*Local resident giving directions, teacher explaining long-division to students
92
BASES OF POWER (Informational Power)
Power based on ability to provide information and convince others.
93
THOSE WHO "MOVE FIRST"?
Exraversion
Assertiveness
Risk-taking
Dominance
Self-efficacy
94
Democratic leader?
Discussed proposed activities, kids made own decisions
95
Authoritarian leader?
Took no input, emphasized authority, assigned projects.
(EX): Hitler
96
Laissez-faire leader?
Unsupervised
*Laissez-faire leaders have an attitude of trust and reliance on their employees. They don't micromanage or get too involved, they don't give too much instruction or guidance.
97
Group Fails?
Group failure is most likely when the group does not communicate.
Does not share Info.
The group is influenced by normative conformity.
98
Group Think?
Process when group makes poor decision resulting from flawed group processes and strong conformity pressure.
99
Which theory explains why groups polarize?
The social comparison theory, or normative influence theory, has been widely used to explain group polarization.
100
Lippit, & White (1943)?
-Interested in the effectiveness of leadership styles.
-Examined 10-11 year olds in the presence of confederates playing the role of a leader for an after-school club:
-Democratic leader: Discussed proposed activities, kids made own decisions
-Authoritarian leader: Took no input, emphasized authority, assigned projects
Laissez-faire leader: Unsupervised
