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BIOL 214 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a theory?

A

Explanatory framework, built from scientific process, to explain an observed phenomenon

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2
Q

Definition of biological evolution?

A

Any genetic change in a population that is inherited across generation

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3
Q

What must biological evolution must explain?

A
  1. Changes in complexity of biological organism
  2. Changes in biodiversity
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4
Q

What is Evolutionary Space

A

Set of all possibilities that organism can evolve into

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5
Q

What can drive change in biodiversity?

A

Speciation and Extinction

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6
Q

Fact vs Theory vs Hypothesis vs Law

A

Fact: Observation around the world

Hypothesis: Potential explanation to a fact

Theory: Set of hypothesis used to explain a phenomenon

Law: Describing a phenomenon with math

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7
Q

What is Malthusian Economics

A

The idea that the world would soon reach a famine because human growth outgrows food production

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8
Q

What is natural selection

A

Differential survival and reproduction due to differences in phenotype that contribute to organism’s fitness

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9
Q

What causes phenotypic differences?

A

Change in genotype

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10
Q

Explain why would an allele become more prevalent overtime via natural selection?

A

If the allele increase an organism’s fitness over its peer, it will likely survive and reproduced, passing its genes that contributed to its fitness to the next generation, making the allele more prevalent

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11
Q

What are the 4 constrains on evolution

A
  1. Physical and Chemical Constraints
  2. Genetic Constraints
  3. Developmental Constraints
  4. Ecological Constraints
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12
Q

What does it mean for evolution to be physically/chemically constraint

A

Organism cannot evolve because they are limited by their physical capability.

For example: an organism that molt would not want to evolve in a way that makes them bigger because it is more hazardous for them physically. Another examples are organism with exoskeleton as bigger size means they would not be able to move.

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13
Q

What does it mean for evolution to be genetically constraint

A

Evolution is constrained from the mechanism of mutation, inheritance, and availability of genetic variation.

If a population has no genetic variability, evolution cannot occur.

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14
Q

What contribute to genetic constraints of evolution

A
  1. Absence of genetic variability
  2. Traits are not selected
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15
Q

Standing Variability vs De novo genetic variability

A

Standing variations are variations that already present in the population. De novo genetic variation describes a change in DNA sequence of a gene that is seen for the first time in a person and not their previous generation

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16
Q

What does it mean for evolution to be constrained by development?

A

Adaptation or traits cannot be present because of how the organism development

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17
Q

What limits natural selection?

A
  1. Lack of Necessary Genetic Variation
  2. Constraints due to History
  3. Tradeoffs
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18
Q

What is Pleiotropy?

A

Multiple traits are affected by a single gene

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19
Q

Aristotle Tree vs Tree of Life

A

Aristotle tree indicates that life progressively gets more complex. Tree of life represents how organism are related to each other via evolution

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20
Q

Why does life get more complex over time but cannot get more simpler?

A

Biodiversity begets biodiversity

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21
Q

What are HOX genes?

A

master regulator genes that direct the development of particular body segments or structures.

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22
Q

What does it mean for evolution to be ecologically constrained?

A

Evolution is prevented from the biotic/abiotic factor of the organism’s environment

Example
1. Formation of Mollusk Shell is constrained by organism’s ecology.

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23
Q

What is the tradeoff between a virus transmissibility and virulence?

A

If a virus is too virulent, it will kill its host which limits its transmissibility.

If the virus is too transmissible, the virus may be too weak to pass on its genetic information since the host’s immune system can fend it off.

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24
Q

What is episodic selection?

A

Any sudden environmental changes that leads to significant altercation in species’s population structure

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25
Q

What is sexual dimorphism?

A

Phenotypic differences between male and female of the same species

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26
Q

What may cause sexual dimorphism?

A

Sexual selection in which the more fit male trait’s is passed on. Female may not require the traits, thus their initial traits are kept.

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27
Q

What is sexual selection? What does it affect?

A

Natural selection that arises through preference by one sex for certain characteristics

An organism ability to compete, attract, or obtain mate

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28
Q

What are the two types of sexual selection?

A
  1. Intersexual Selection (Mate choose)
  2. Intrasexual (Mates compete for other mates)
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29
Q

What is exaptation?

A

a feature that performs a function but was not produced by natural selection for its current use. Traits that have been enlisted for new uses.

For example, feather were evolved for temperature regulation but later adapted for flight

Another example is the rock climbing gobi, in which their oral structure were initially used for feeding, but they use it for climbing

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30
Q

What is a spandrel?

A

phenotypic trait that is a byproduct of the evolution of some other characteristic

For example, the human chin is an evolutionary spandrel, formed by natural selection of a smaller face

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31
Q

What is Occam’s Razor?

A

The explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible

32
Q

What is Hickam Dictum

A

The counter argument to Occam Razor. This is because a patient is statistically have have multiple related diseases than have one source explain all their symptoms.

33
Q

What is a transcriptional network?

A

A set of genes that control other genes.
A change in one gene can cause multiple different changes

34
Q

What is chemoautotrophs?

A

Organism that use chemicals released from chemical reaction into organic compounds

35
Q

What is the major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

A
  1. Their genome structure (circular in pro, linear in eu)
  2. Size (pro is smaller than eu)
  3. Presence of membrane bound nucleus (absent in pro)
36
Q

What is the deep hot hypothesis

A

A hypothesis that suggests that all early branching organisms from LUCA lived deep beneath the Earth’s surface

37
Q

What are the components that make up the deep hot hypothesis

A
  1. Early branching lineage were thermophilic chemoautotroph
  2. Early earth had high UV level at surface which can harm organism
  3. There were little oxygen and organism could not perform oxygenic photosynthesis yet
38
Q

What are the evidences that support deep hot

A
  1. Earliest fossil of evidence of life were found in rocks, shown to have a lack of oxygen
  2. UV light can penetrate deep into the water, causing organism to seek a deeper shelter
39
Q

How does rocks show the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere?

A

When examining the rock, the more hematite present in the rock, the more concentrated the atmosphere with oxygen. If there are more pyrite, the less concentrated the atmosphere is with oxygen

40
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer?

A

The passing of one or more genes through routes other than parent to offspring

41
Q

What are the three ways horizontal gene transfer can be accomplished?

A
  1. Transformation
  2. Transduction
  3. Conjugation
42
Q

Organism can undergo horizontal gene transfer through genome escaping the nucleus via cell damage and entering into another organism. Why might the organism receiving the genome may not adopt the trait from the organism its receiving?

A

Traits from horizontal gene transfer can only be apparent if the genome makes its way into a reproductive cell. Then that same reproductive cell (sperm or ovule) must be used to make a new offspring.

43
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer via transformation? How might that look like in modern bacteria?

A

Insertion of a gene fragment from an organism (usually dead) to a living organism

Bacteria can take up genetic information from its environment incorporating it as its own.

44
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer via transduction? How might that look like in modern bacteria?

A

the process by which a virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another

A virus can infect bacteria A and spread its genome. The bacteriophage can carry bacteria A’s genome and infect bacteria B, transferring the genetic material from bacteria A to bacteria B

45
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer via conjugation? How might that look like in modern bacteria?

A

DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another.

Two bacteria can come together and form a pilus between them. One bacteria can donate its genetic material to the other bacteria.

46
Q

What is the importance of having conflicting data?

A

It highlights that organism can undergo horizontal gene transfer. In a tree that shows eukaryotes and archea more related, Dihydrofolate reductase is being compared. In a tree that shows archaea and bacteria more related, Glutamine synthetase is being compared. Therefore, there must be a horizontal gene transfer between two domain that cause it to converge.

47
Q

What gene may LUCA have?

A
  1. tRNA (to make protein)
  2. rRNA (to make ribosome)
48
Q

What protein may LUCA have?

A
  1. DNA polymerase (to replicate genetic material)
  2. RNA polymerase (to replicate genetic material)
  3. Ribosomal protein (to make ribosome)
  4. Enzymes
49
Q

What evidence supports that LUCA lives in anaerobic, hydrothermal conditions?

A
  1. Contains Wood-Ljungdahl gene
  2. Nitrogenases
  3. Proton-Sodium Antiporter
  4. Lacks components of ETC
50
Q

If LUCA has only so many enzyme, how is it able to power chemical reaction?

A

Heat form hydrothermal vent drives reaction and because the ocean is more acidic than the inside of the cell, H+ is able to travel into its cell with its concentration gradient

51
Q

How did eukaryotes arise?

A

Syntrophy Hypothesis:
Eukaryotes arose from endosymbiotic relationship between an alphaproteobacteria and an archaea, forming an early eukaryotes with a mitochondria.

52
Q

What is syntrophy?

A

The relationship between the individuals of two different species in which one or both species benefit from the presence of the other species.

53
Q

What was so important about Lokiarchaeaota?

A

Their genome suggest that its the closest relative to eukaryotes. Their genome consist of proteins that are exclusive to eukaryotes

54
Q

How are alphaproteobacteria similar to mitochondria?

A
  1. Double membrane
  2. Circular DNA
  3. ETC
  4. Citric Acid Cycle
55
Q

What is the inside out theory?

A

eukaryotes evolved gradually as cell protrusions, called blebs, reached out to trap free-living mitochondria-like bacteria.

56
Q

What is the difference between a “gene tree” and an ‘organismal tree’ (also known as a ‘species tree’)?

A

A gene tree is a tree that’s constructed from a single gene. An organismal tree is a tree that shows evolutionary relationships between species.

57
Q

Provide three distinct lines of evidence that ancient stromatolites contained photosynthetic organisms?

A

1.Growing in layers: organism compete for light

  1. Bands of iron in stromatolite: iron oxide means presence of oxygen

3.Stromatolites are built from cyanobacteria which are photosynthetic

58
Q

What is the predator prey arm race?

A

The mutual evolution of predator and prey

Ex: Chlorella
Chlorella clump together to avoid being eaten by Ochramonas. This cause the chlorella to transition from unicellular to multicellular

59
Q

What is the tradeoff for different sizes of cytoplasm?

A

Bigger cytoplasm means more organism is more prone to predator pressure even though they can take in more nutrients

60
Q

Benfits of multicellularity?

A
  1. Protection from predator
  2. Improved acquisition of a diversity of resources
  3. Improved survival in biotic and abiotic stresses
  4. Opportunities for cell differentiation and specialization
61
Q

Cost of multicellularity>

A

1.Energetic costs from synthesis of adhesion and communication molecules

  1. Reduced mobility in a complex environment
  2. Vulnerability to exploitation by “cheaters”
62
Q

What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?

A
  1. Mitosis involves in skin cell while meiosis involves in gametes
  2. Meiosis undergoes PMAT twice
63
Q

What is evolutionary significance?

A

mutation that can contribute to evolutionary process
Inheritance in a multicellular organism

64
Q

What is parthenogenesis?

A

female asexual reproduction.

65
Q

Why is it beneficial for an organism to undergo more rounds of mitosis than meiosis?

A

To preserve its genetic information and prevent it from changing via mutation

66
Q

Cost of sex?

A

1.Must locate a mate in order to reproduce

  1. Finding/winning/keeping mate may reduce
    survival fitness
  2. Cost of producing (often large numbers of)
    gametes requires time, energy and resources
  3. Dilution of adapted alleles, loss of adapted genotypes
  4. Risk of STDs, parasites (including transposons, etc.)
67
Q

What is the main purpose of sex?

A

Fastest way to produce beneficial traits

68
Q

Somatic vs Germ Cell

A

Somatic cells are any body cells that are not reproductive. Germ cells are reproductive cells

69
Q

How does Sex accelerate adaptation to environment?

A

It provides the next generation an opportunity to have a the genetic diversity to adapt to the environment.

Ex: yeast sexually reproduce in nutrient poor environment in the hopes of their offspring being adapted to the nutrient poor environment

70
Q

What is independant assortment?

A

Genes are independantly inherited from each other

71
Q

Why do prokaryotes have circular DNA?

A

Early prokaryotes have circular DNA because circular DNA are being topologically restrained so it’s difficult to denature. That makes the body plan of DNA in modern prokaryotes

72
Q

What does n represent?

A

Number of chromosome in a set

73
Q

How can homologous recombinant occur?

A
  1. Double Strand Break
  2. Sex
74
Q

Benefits of sex

A

1.Sex speeds up adaptive evolution by allowing beneficial alleles to quickly accumulate in a single evolutionary lineage

  1. Sex produces genetically diverse offspring which may
    provide a long term advantage in a diverse, variable or
    changing environment (bet-hedging)
  2. Sex speeds up the evolution of complex adaptive suites for specialized niches
  3. Sex provides a constant source of genetic diversity to stay one step ahead of co-evolving pathogens, parasites,
    predators and cheaters (Red Queen)
75
Q

If self reproduction is more efficient in reproduction, why is sex still prefered?

A

Sex produces genetic diversity that can allow the offspring to become resistant to an obstacle (parasite)

76
Q

What does it mean for evolution to be a stepwise process?

A

Organism is accumulating small variation (not linearly) over long period of time until a new species is born. Organism cannot immediately evolve to have a certain trait for adaptation. Rather, it takes small steps for organism to finally adapt

BIOL 214 (4 decks)

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