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A&P 1 ( Professor Ward '22) > Exam #3 > Flashcards

Exam #3 Flashcards

1
Q

A bundle of axons in the CNS are called

A

fiber tracts

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2
Q

A bundle of axons in the PNS are called

A

nerves

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3
Q

A bundle of cell bodies in the CNS are called

A

nuclei

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4
Q

A bundle of cell bodies in the PNS are called

A

ganglia

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5
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

31 pairs

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6
Q

What do descending tracts do?

A

send motor commands come from the brain

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7
Q

What do ascending tracts do?

A

send sensory impulses go to the brain

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8
Q

Do the nerves in ascending and descending tracts transmit the same information?

A

yes

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9
Q

5 parts of the Reflex Arc:

A
  1. Receptor
  2. Afferent Neuron (sensory)
  3. Association Neuron
  4. Efferent Neuron (motor)
  5. Effector (organ)
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10
Q

Spinocerebellar tracts:

A

carries afferent information up the spinal cord

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11
Q

Corticospinal tracts:

A

carries voluntary information down the spinal cord

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12
Q

Complete transection above the 5th cervical vertebra

A

Death

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13
Q

Complete transection above the 8th cervical vertebra

A

Quadriplegia

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14
Q

Complete transection below the 8th cervical vertebra

A

Paraplegia

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15
Q

The sympathetic pathway has:

A

short preganglionic fibers

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16
Q

The parasympathetic pathway has:

A

long preganglionic fibers

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17
Q

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems:

A
  • Maintains an internal steady state

* Generally involuntary

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18
Q

AFFERENT PATHWAY:

A

Information from visceral organs carried by afferent neurons terminate in spinal cord or brainstem and can result in both somatic and autonomic output

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19
Q

EFFERENT PATHWAY:

A
  • Almost always 2 neurons

* One from ganglion to effector muscle or gland

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20
Q

PREGANGLIONIC NEURON:

A
  • Cell body in brain or spinal cord
    • Axon is part of cranial or spinal nerve
    • Leads to ganglion
    • Myelinated
    • The sympathetic pathway has short preganglionic fibers.
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21
Q

POSTGANGLIONIC NEURON:

A
  • Outside CNS
  • Cell body in ganglion
  • Terminates on
    – Smooth or cardiac muscle
    – Or gland
  • Unmyelinated
  • Excites or inhibits
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22
Q

PARASYMPATHETIC SYSTEM EFFECTS:

A
  • Conserves and restores energy
  • Dominates when person is relaxed
  • Stimulates
    – Increased digestion
    – Decreased heart rate
    – Increased urination
  • Main neurotransmitter Acetylcholine
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23
Q

What is the parasympathetic main neurotransmitter secreted?

A

Acetylcholine

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24
Q

SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM EFFECTS:

A 
• Gears body for action
• Mobilizes
energy-increases
– Blood pressure
– Heart rate
– Blood sugar
– Blood to skeletal muscle
• Widespread effects
• Prolonged through Adrenal medulla
• Main neurotransmitter Norepinephrine
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25
Q

What is the sympathetic main neurotransmitter secreted?

A

Norepinephrine

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26
Q

Acetylcholine is secreted from

A

preganglionic axons

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27
Q

Norepinephrine is secreted from

A

adrenal medulla

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28
Q

REGULATION OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM HYPOTHALAMUS:

A 
• Major control and integration center
• Receives input on
– Smell, taste
– Temperature
– Chemical composition of blood
– Visceral changes
– Emotions
• Sends commands through
– Medulla and spinal cord
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29
Q

What are the 3 functions of the brain?

A
  • Receives Sensory Information
  • Transmits Motor Commands
  • Serves as a reflex center
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30
Q

What are the major regions of the brain?

A
  • Brain Stem
  • Diencephalon
  • Cerebellum
  • Cerebrum
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31
Q

The Brainstem consists of:

A
  • Medulla
  • Pons
  • Midbrain
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32
Q

Medulla:

A 
Carries information between the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD
• Contains VITAL CENTERS
– Cardiac
– Vasomotor
– Respiratory
• Site of REFLEXES
– Sneezing, coughing
– Vomiting, gagging
– Swallowing, salivating
– Sweating
– Movements of tongue and head
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33
Q

PONS:

A 
Houses RESPIRATORY centers
– Site of REFLEXES
• Facial
• Chewing
• Eyes
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34
Q

Midbrain:

A 
• CONNECTING FIBERS
• Site of REFLEXES
– Movements of head and eyes
– Righting
– Auditory
– Pupilary
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35
Q

THE RETICULAR FORMATION: (Brainstem)

A
  • Reduce pain perception
  • Regulate sleep and consciousness
  • Regulate activities that control the state of wakefulness or alertness of the cerebral cortex
  • Regulate sensory input to the higher brain
  • Habituate the brain to unimportant information
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36
Q

What does the diencephalon consist of?

A
  • THALAMUS

* HYPOTHALAMUS

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37
Q

THALUMUS:

A

• Relay centerfor sensory input (not smell)
• Sensory awareness
– pleasure and unpleasantness associated with sensory information

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38
Q

HYPOTHALUMUS:

A 
• Control of HOMEOSTASIS
• LINKS
nervous and endocrine systems
• REGULATES
– Autonomic nervous system
– Pituitary gland
– Fluid balance
– Body temperature
– Hunger and thirst
– Sex drive
– Sleep/wakefullness
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39
Q

CEREBELLUM:

A 
• Coordination of muscle movements
1. Receives input from the SENSES
a. Position of body in space
2. Receives input from the HIGHER BRAIN
a. What body is supposed to do
3. COMPARES 2 inputs
a. Sends correcting information to the higher brain
• Maintains MUSCLE TONE
• Maintains EQUILIBRIUM
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40
Q

CEREBRUM:

A 
It functions as the center of:
• SENSORY PERCEPTION
• MEMORY
• THOUGHT AND JUDGEMENT
• VOLUNTARY MOTOR ACTIVITY
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41
Q

WHITE MATTER:

A

• Inside the cerebrum
• Contains myelinated axons
– Serve as connecting fibers
(association fibers, commissure fibers, and projection fibers)

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42
Q

a type of white matter fiber that connect neurons within same hemisphere

A

ASSOCIATION FIBERS

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43
Q

a type of white matter fiber that connect hemispheres

A

COMMISURE FIBERS

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44
Q

a type of white matter fiber that connect brain and spinal cord

A

PROJECTION FIBERS

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45
Q

GRAY MATTER:

A

on the outside

46
Q

BASAL GANGLIA:

A

Consists of the:
•Caudate Nucleus
•Putamen
•Gobus Pallidus

47
Q

CEREBRAL CORTEX:

A 
– Outer GRAY MATTER of cerebrum
– Includes specific regions for
– Each of the senses
– Motor commands
– Relating current and past input
48
Q

PREFRONTAL CORTEX:

A

– Abstract intellectual functions
– Relates incoming information to previous memories
– Predicts future consequences
– Frustration, tension, anxiety about future

49
Q

LIMBIC SYSTEM:

A 
– Deep in cerebrum
– Combines structures of the
– Cerebrum
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Site of emotions
– Fear
– Rage
– Pleasure
50
Q

LIMBIC CENTERS:

A

HIPPOCAMPUS
AMYGDALA
CINGULATE GYRUS

51
Q

HIPPOCAMPUS

A

• Site of memory formation
Converts short-term memory
into long-term memory

52
Q

AMYGDALA

A

– Emotional responses
– Recognition of emotion in others
– Storage of emotional Memories

53
Q

CINGULATE GYRUS

A
  • allows shifting of attention
  • cognitive flexibility
  • adaptability
  • helps the mind move from idea to idea
  • gives the ability to see options
  • helps you go with the flow
  • cooperation
54
Q

SENSORY MEMORY:

A

– Focus of attention
– Related to past experience for identification
– Lasts 1 second

55
Q

SHORT-TERM MEMORY:

A

– Information we are aware of
– 7 chunks
– Lasts seconds-hours
– Requires rehearsal

56
Q

LONG-TERM MEMORY:

A

– Brain rehearses material in hippocampus
– After a few weeks, material is transferred to
cerebral cortex for storage

57
Q

DEEP SLEEP

A

– Slow wave
– Body relaxes
– Heart rate, respiratory rate, energy utilization drop
– ADP levels high

58
Q

REM SLEEP

A 
– Dreaming
– Muscle tone decreases
– Less receptive to outside stimuli
– 5-20 minute bouts
– Total 2 hours
59
Q

this lobe is responsible for critical thinking

A

Parietal lobe

60
Q

this lobe is responsible for somatosensory areas

A

Frontal lobe

61
Q

this lobe is responsible for vision

A

Occipital lobe

62
Q

this lobe is responsible for olfactory and hearing

A

Temporal lobe

63
Q

The process of converting a stimulus such

as an odor or sound to an action potential

A

Transduction

64
Q

Reduction in sensitivity in response to

constant stimulus

A

Adaptation

65
Q

What are the 3 types of general senses?

A 
• Mechanoreceptors
– Touch, pressure, proprioceptors,
• Thermoreceptors
– Temperature
• Nociceptors
– Pain
66
Q

PROPRIOCEPTORS:

A

• Location of body parts in space
• Include
– Muscle Spindles
– Tendon organs

67
Q
  • Found in skeletal muscle
  • Respond to stretch of muscle
  • Do not adapt
A

Muscle Spindles

68
Q 
• In tendons
• Respond to stretch of tendon
• Cause reflex inhibition of further muscle
contraction
• Adapt slowly
A

TENDON ORGANS

69
Q

Where are Type II cutaneous receptors (Ruffini

corpuscles) found?

A

– Found in dermis

– Slow-adapting

70
Q

Free nerve endings thermal receptors

A 
Free nerve endings
– Warm receptors
– Cold receptors
– Pain receptors
• Rapid adapting
71
Q

NOCICEPTORS FOR PAIN

A 
• Protective
– Makes you aware of tissue injury
• Free nerve endings
• Found in nearly every tissue of body
– None in brain
• Slow adapting
72
Q

What are the types of pain receptors?

A 
• Type A-Myelinated
– Fast
– Sharp, prickling pain
– Knife cut, needle
• Type C-Unmyelinated
– Slow
– Burning, aching
73
Q
  • Sensory neuron from visceral organs

* Sensory neurons from the body surface converge at the same level of the spinal cord

A

Referred pain

74
Q

What are the types of taste sensations?

A

– Sweet
– Bitter
– Umami
– Sour

75
Q

How many olfactory sensations are there?

A

more than 50 primary smells

76
Q

The Eye 4 Stages of focusing:

A
  1. Refraction of light rays
  2. Accommodation of the lens
  3. Constriction of the pupil
  4. Convergence of the eyes
77
Q

What are the refractive layers:

A
  1. cornea
  2. aqueous humor
  3. lens
  4. vitreous humor
78
Q

Refraction:

A 
• Bending of light rays as they pass
through different media
• Rays of light must be brought
together so that they
form on the fovea of the retina
• If the image forms in the
front or the back of
the fovea the object
will be blurryblurry
79
Q

Nearsighted
– Eyeball too long
– Image focused in front of retina
– Corrected by a concave lens

A

Myopia

80
Q 
FARSIGHTED
– Eyeball too short
– Image focused behind retina
– Corrected by convex lens
• Radial Keratotomy
– For myopia
– Incisions flatten cornea
– Reduces bending
A

Hyperopia

81
Q

Accommodation:

A 
• When an object is 20 feet away or further,
light rays are focused by
– The cornea
– A relaxed, flattened lens
*When an object is closer than 20 feet.
Light rays need more bending.
This is accomplished by
– Changing the shape of the lens
– It becomes round
• More dense
• Bends more
82
Q

The distance at which the lens can focus
without changing shape.
– 20 feet and beyond

A

The Far Point of Vision

83
Q 
The closest distance at which objects can be
focused
• Less than 40 years- 4 inches
• 40 years- 8 inches
• 60 years- 2.5 feet
A

The Near Point of Vision

84
Q

CONSTRICTION OF THE PUPIL:

A

• When viewing close objects
• Contraction of the iris
• Prevents divergent light rays from entering
from the periphery
• These rays would not be brought into focus
on the retina.

85
Q

EYE CONVERGENCE:

A
  • Both eyes must focus on the same object.
  • Eyes must rotate medially to view close objects.
  • The closer the object the more convergence there is.
86
Q

BINOCULAR VISION:

A

• Our two eyes focus on an overlapping visual field.
• The reason
– Half of the nerve fibers from each eye cross
over to the opposite side of brain
• Optic chiasm a part of the
– The right visual field goes to the left brain
– The left visual field goes to the right brain

87
Q

THE RETINA:

A 
• Contains visual receptor cells
– Rods
• Active in dim light
– Cones
• Active in bright light
• Color vision
• Distribution
– Rods all over retina
– Cones concentrated in fovea
88
Q

VISUAL PHYSIOLOGY:

A

• Rods and Cones
– Absorb light energy
– Light energy breaks down a visual pigment
– This closes or opens ion gates in rods and cones

89
Q

RODS:

A 
• Contain the light-absorbing
photopigment
– Rhodopsin
• In the presence of light
– Rhodopsin is activated
• This effects Na+ gates
• Causes changes in
the membrane potential
of the rod cell
90
Q

COLOR BLINDNESS:

A 
• Cones missing or nonfuctional
• Red-Green most common
– Red or Green cones missing
• Sex linked
– Genes for reds and greens on X chromosome
– 10% men, < 1% women
• Total color blindness rare
91
Q

• A pressure disturbance coming from a
moving object
• Creates a sound wave

A

SOUND

92
Q

The distance between two wave crests

A

WAVELENGTH

93
Q

Frequency is measured in

A

hertz (waves/sec)

94
Q

The shorter the wavelength the higher the frequency?

A

True

95
Q

• The loudness of a sound is equal to the
height of the wave
• Loudness is measured in decibels

A

AMPLITUDE

96
Q

What are the parts of the ear?

A
  1. Outer ear
  2. Middle ear
  3. Inner ear
97
Q

Outer Ear:

A 
PINNA
• Elastic cartilage
• Catches sound waves
AUDITORY CANAL
• Carries sound to middle ear
• Ceruminous glands
– Wax
– Traps bacteria, particles
– Waterproof coating
98
Q

Middle Ear:

A 
TYMPANIC
MEMBRANE
• Thin fibrous connective tissue
• Vibrates and amplifies OSSICLES
• Transmit and amplify sounds
– Malleus-presses on ear drum
– Incus
– Stapes-presses on oval window
99
Q

Inner Ear:

A 
BONY LABYRINTH
• Cochlea
– Organ of hearing
• Semicircular canals
– Motion of the head
• Saccule and Utricle
– Position of the head
100
Q

Motion of the head

A

Semicircular canals

101
Q

Position of the head

A

Saccule and Utricle

102
Q

3 ducts of the COCHLEA:

A 
* Vestibular (duct-top)
• Tympanic (duct-bottom)
– These connect
– Filled with perilymph
• Cochlear duct-middle
– Filled with endolymph
– Holds
103
Q

ORGAN OF CORTI

A 
• Sensory hair cells
– Resting on a
• Basilar membrane
– With their hairs touching a stiff
• Tectorial membrane
104
Q

HAIR CELLS

A

• High frequency cells
– At stapes end
• Low frequency cells
– At Helicotrema

105
Q

MECHANISMS OF HEARING:

A 
• Sound waves enter the auditory canal
• They strike the tympanic membrane
– They are amplified
• They send vibrations through the ossicles
(the malleus, incus, and stapes)
– They are amplified even more
The stapes moves the oval window
This causes the fluid in the vestibular canal to vibrate
106
Q

send waves that travel around the tip of the cochlea to the tympanic duct

A

Sounds of low frequency

107
Q

send waves only through the stapes end directly to the
vestibular canal and cochlear duct
• The basilar membrane vibrates

A

Sounds of high frequency

108
Q

Semicircular canals:

A 
• 3 canals different planes of space
• Contain fluid and sensory hair cells
• Detect motion of head acceleration,
deceleration and rotation
• DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
109
Q

Vestibule:

A 
• Structures
– Utricle
– Saccule
• Measures static equilibrium
– Position of the head in space Utricle Saccule
110
Q

SACCULE AND UTRICLE:

A
  • Hair cells covered by a gelatinous layer
  • Covered by otoliths
  • When head tilts the otoliths pull the hair cells
  • Detects the position of the head in space
  • STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

A&P 1 ( Professor Ward '22) (3 decks)

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